Economics

Well, I think I am now confident, Ischomachus, that I need not avoid farming from fear of not knowing the nature of the soil.

The fact is, I am reminded that fishermen, though their business is in the sea, and they neither stop the boat to take a look nor slow down, nevertheless, when they see the crops as they scud past the farms, do not hesitate to express an opinion about the land, which is the good and which is the bad sort, now condemning, now praising it. And, what is more, I notice that in their opinion about the good land they generally agree exactly with experienced farmers.

Then, Socrates, let me refresh your memory on the subject of agriculture; but where do you wish me to begin? For I am aware that I shall tell you very much that you know already about the right method of farming.

First, Ischomachus, I think I should be glad to learn, for this is the philosopher’s way, how I am to cultivate the land if I want to get the heaviest crops of wheat and barley out of it.

Well, you know, I take it, that fallow must be prepared for sowing?Yes, I know.

Suppose, then, we start ploughing in winter?Why, the land will be a bog!How about starting in summer?The land will be hard to plough up.

It seems that spring is the season for beginning this work.Yes, the land is likely to be more friable if it is broken up then.Yes, and the grass turned up is long enough at that season to serve as manure, but, not having shed seed, it will not grow.

You know also, I presume, that fallow land can’t be satisfactory unless it is clear of weeds and thoroughly baked in the sun?Yes, certainly; that is essential, I think.

Do you think that there is any better way of securing that than by turning the land over as often as possible in summer?Nay, I know for certain that if you want the weeds to lie on the surface and wither in the heat, and the land to be baked by the sun, the surest way is to plough it up at midday in midsummer.

And if men prepare the fallow by digging, is it not obvious that they too must separate the weeds from the soil?Yes, and they must throw the weeds on the surface to wither, and turn up the ground so that the lower spit[*](Literally, the crude land.) may be baked.

You see, then, Socrates, that we agree about the fallow.It does seem so, to be sure.And now as to the time for sowing, Socrates. Is it not your opinion that the time to sow is that which has been invariably found to be the best by past experience, and is universally approved by present practice?

For as soon as autumn ends, all men, I suppose, look anxiously to God, to see when he will send rain on the earth and make them free to sow.Yes, Ischomachus, all men have made up their minds, of course, not to sow in dry ground if they can help it, those who sowed without waiting to be bidden by God having had to wrestle with many losses.

So far, then, said Ischomachus, all the world is of one mind. Yes, said I, where God is our teacher we all come to think alike. For example, all agree that it is better to wear warm clothes in winter, if they can, and all agree on the desirability of having a fire, if they have wood.

But, said Ischomachus, when we come to the question whether sowing is best done early or very late or at the mid-season, we find much difference of opinion, Socrates. And God, said I, does not regulate the year by fixed laws; but in one year it may be advantageous to sow early, in another very late, in another at mid-season.

Then do you think, Socrates, that it is better to select one of these times for sowing, whether you sow much or little, or to begin at the earliest moment and continue sowing to the latest?

For my part, Ischomachus, I think it is best to sow for succession throughout the season. For in my opinion it is much better to get enough food at all times than too much at one time and not enough at another.Here again, then, Socrates, pupil and teacher are of one opinion; and, moreover, you, the pupil, are first in stating this opinion.

Well now, is casting the seed a complicated problem?By all means let us take that also into consideration, Socrates. I presume that you know as well as I that the seed must be cast by the hand?Yes, I have seen it.Ah, he said, but some men can cast evenly, and some cannot. Then sowers no less than lyre-players need practice, that the hand may be the servant of the will. Certainly.

But suppose that some of the land is rather light and some rather heavy?What do you mean by that? I interrupted. By light do you mean weak, and by heavy, strong? Yes, I do; and I ask you whether you would give the same quantity of seed to both kinds, or to which you would give more?

Well, my principle is this: the stronger the wine, the more water I add; the stronger the bearer, the heavier the burden I put on his back; and if it is necessary to feed others, I should require the richest men to feed the greatest number. But tell me whether weak land, like draught animals, becomes stronger when you put more corn into it.

Ah, you’re joking, Socrates, he said, laughing, but allow me to tell you that, if after putting in the seed you plough it in again as soon as the blade appears when the land is obtaining plenty of nourishment from the sky, it makes food for the soil, and strengthens it like manure. If, on the other hand, you let the seed go on growing on the land until it is bolled, it’s hard for weak land to yield much grain in the end. It’s hard, you know, for a weak sow to rear a big litter of fine pigs.