De Specialibus Legibus (lib. i‑iv)

for when a person perceives this passion of covetousness after having started up rapidly, then resting for a short time, either with a view to spread out its alluring toils, or because it has learnt to entertain a hope of succeeding in its object, he then retires to a longer distance uttering reproaches against it; but the passion itself, being left behind and coming too late to succeed, struggles, bearing a Tantalus-like punishment in its miserable future; for it is said that Tantalus, when he desired to obtain any liquor to drink, was not able to do so, as the water retreated from his lips, [*](The story of Tantalus is told in Homer, Od. xi. 581.καὶ μὴν Τάνταλον εἰσεῖδον κρατέρʼ ἄλγεʼ ἔχονταἑστεῶτʼ ἐν λίμνῃ· ἡ δὲ προσέπλαζε γενείῳ·στεῦτο δὲ διψάων, πιέειν δʼ οὐκ εἶχεν ἑλέσθαι·ὁσσάκι γὰρ κύψειʼ ὁ γέρων πιέειν μενεαίνων,τοσσάχʼ ὕδωρ ἀπολέσκετʼ ἀναβροχέν, ἀμφὶ δὲ ποσσὶγαῖα μέλαινα φάνεσκε, καταζήνασκε δὲ δαίμων.δένδρεα δʼ ὑψιπέτηλα κατὰ κρῆθεν χέε καρπόν,ὄγχναι καὶ ῥοιαὶ καὶ μηλέαι ἀγλαόκαρποισυκέαι τε γλυκεραὶ καὶ ἐλαῖαι τηλεθόωσαι·τῶν ὁπότʼ ἰθύσειʼ ὁ γέρων ἐπὶ χερσὶ μάσασθαι,τὰς δʼ ἄνεμος ῥίπτασκε ποτὶ νέφεα σκιόεντα.Or, as it is translated: by Pope, "There Tantalus along the Stygian bounds,Pours out deep groans (with groans all hell resounds);Ev’n in the circling floods refreshment craves,And pines with thirst among a sea of waves;When to the water he his lip applies,Back from his lip the treacherous water flies.Above, beneath, around his hapless head,Trees of all kinds delicious fruitage spread;There figs, sky-dyed, a purple hue disclose,Green looks the olive, the pomegranate glows;There dangling pears exalting scents unfold,And yellow apples ripen into gold.The first he strives to seize; but blasts arise,Toss it on high, and whirl it to the skies.") and if he wished to gather any fruit, it all [*]( The story of Tantalus is told in Homer, Od. xi. 581. καὶ μὴν Τάνταλον εἰσεῖδον κρατέρʼ ἄλγεʼ ἔχοντα ἑστεῶτʼ ἐν λίμνῃ· ἡ δὲ προσέπλαζε γενείῳ· στεῦτο δὲ διψάων, πιέειν δʼ οὐκ εἶχεν ἑλέσθαι· ὁσσάκι γὰρ κύψειʼ ὁ γέρων πιέειν μενεαίνων, τοσσάχʼ ὕδωρ ἀπολέσκετʼ ἀναβροχέν, ἀμφὶ δὲ ποσσὶ γαῖα μέλαινα φάνεσκε, καταζήνασκε δὲ δαίμων. δένδρεα δʼ ὑψιπέτηλα κατὰ κρῆθεν χέε καρπόν, ὄγχναι καὶ ῥοιαὶ καὶ μηλέαι ἀγλαόκαρποι συκέαι τε γλυκεραὶ καὶ ἐλαῖαι τηλεθόωσαι· τῶν ὁπότʼ ἰθύσειʼ ὁ γέρων ἐπὶ χερσὶ μάσασθαι, τὰς δʼ ἄνεμος ῥίπτασκε ποτὶ νέφεα σκιόεντα. Or, as it is translated: by Pope, "There Tantalus along the Stygian bounds, Pours out deep groans (with groans all hell resounds); Ev’n in the circling floods refreshment craves, And pines with thirst among a sea of waves; When to the water he his lip applies, Back from his lip the treacherous water flies. Above, beneath, around his hapless head, Trees of all kinds delicious fruitage spread; There figs, sky-dyed, a purple hue disclose, Green looks the olive, the pomegranate glows; There dangling pears exalting scents unfold, And yellow apples ripen into gold. The first he strives to seize; but blasts arise, Toss it on high, and whirl it to the skies.")

for as those implacable and inexorable mistresses of the body, thirst and hunger, do very often strain it more, or at all events not less, than those unhappy persons are strained who are racked by the torture even to death, unless when they have become violent some one appeases them with meat and drink; in like manner, covetous desire, having first rendered the soul empty through its forgetfulness of what is present and its recollection of what is removed to a great distance, fills it with impetuosity and madness, and introduces into it masters worse than even its former tyrants, but having the same names with them, namely, hunger and thirst, not, however, now of those things which conduce to the enjoyment of the belly, but of money, and glory, and authority, and beauty, and of innumerable other things which appear to be objects of desire and contention in human life.

And as the disease which the physicians call the herpes, [*]( So called from ἕρπω, "to creep.") does not stop in one part of the body, but moves about and overruns the skin, and, as its name shows, creeps about (διέρπει), and becomes diffused in every direction, and spreading widely seizes hold of and infects with its contact the whole combination of the different parts of the body from the head to the feet, so in the same manner does covetous desire spread over the whole soul, and leave not even the smallest portion of it free from its inroads, imitating the power of fire when supplied with abundant fuel, for that spreads and burns away till it has devoured and destroyed everything with which it meets.

So great and so excessive an evil is covetous desire; or rather, if I am to speak the plain truth concerning it, it is the source of all evils. For from what other source do all the thefts, and acts of rapine, and repudiation of debt, and all false accusations, and acts of insolence, and, moreover, all ravishments, and adulteries, and murders, and, in short, all mischiefs, whether private or public, or sacred or profane, take their rise?

For most truly may covetous desire be said to be the original passion which is at the bottom of all these mischiefs, of which love is one and the most significant offspring, which has not once but many times filled the whole [*]( So called from ἕρπω, "to creep.")

And by looking at it in this manner we shall more clearly perceive the power of this passion. Everything which covetous desire lays hold of is by it changed for the worse, like poisonous serpents or deadly poisons. Now what is it that I mean when I say this?

If this passion is directed towards money, it makes thieves, and cut-purses, and clothes-stealers, and house-breakers, and taints men with the guilt of the repudiation of debts, of the denial of deposits, of bribery and sacrilege, and all such iniquities as those.

If it is directed towards glory, it makes men insolent, overbearing, fickle, and unstable in their dispositions, depending wholly on what is said to them and on what they hear, at the same time humbled and elated by reason of the variety and inconstancy of the multitudes who praise and blame them with inconsiderate impetuosity, inconsiderate in their enmity and in their friendship, so as easily to change from one to the other, and fills them with all sorts of humours akin to and resembling these.

Again, if the desire takes the direction of wishing for authority and power, it renders men’s natures seditious, unequal, and tyrannical, it makes them cruel and inhuman enemies of their native countries, implacable masters unable to restrain themselves, irreconcileable foes to all who are equal to themselves in might, flatterers of those who are more powerful than themselves, in order to be able to attack them treacherously. If what is desired is beauty of person, it makes men [*]( The diaulos was the race in which the runners ran to the goal and back to the starting post.)

for some persons desire either to be silent about what ought to be mentioned, or to mention what ought to be buried in silence, and avenging justice pursues them if they reveal things improperly, or, on the contrary, if they are unseasonably silent.

When it affects the parts about the belly it makes men gluttonous, insatiable, intemperate, debauched, admirers of a profligate life, delighting in drunkenness, and epicurism, slaves to strong wine, and fish, and meat, pursuers of feasts and tables, wallowing like greedy dogs; owing to all which things their lives are rendered miserable and accursed, and they are reduced to an existence more grievous than any death.

For this reason those who have tasted deeply of philosophy, not merely with their lips, but feasting thoroughly on its profound doctrines, investigating the nature of the soul, and comprehending its threefold character, and how it is divided into reason, and anger, and appetite, have attributed the chief post to reason as the principal authority, assigning to it the head as its most appropriate abode, where also the company of the outward senses, who are always present as the body-guards of the mind as their king, are stationed;

and assigning the breast as the abode of anger, partly in order that the man, being, like a soldier, armed with this as with a breastplate, so that, even if it be not utterly free from all injury, it may, at least, be difficult to subdue, and partly in order that, dwelling near the mind, it may be benefited by its neighbour, who charms it by its wisdom, and who renders the passions gentle and manageable; and to appetite they assign the place around the navel, and to that part which is called the diaphragm.

For it was proper that that, as having the smallest participation in reason, should be removed as far as possible from the palace of the mind and located almost at the very extremities; and that which is the most insatiable and the most intemperate of all, the passions, should be confined to the pastures of cattle, where they can find food and opportunities for the propagation of their species.

And the most holy Moses appears to me to have had a regard to all these circumstances, and on that account to have commanded that men should discard this passion, detesting it as the most disgraceful thing and the cause of most disgraceful actions; and, therefore, to have prohibited it above all other feelings as an engine for the destruction of the soul; but if that engine is destroyed and the soul brought back to its obedience, to the guidance of reason, the man will become entirely filled with peace and obedience to law and all sorts of perfect good things, so as to produce complete happiness.

But as he was fond of brevity and accustomed to cut short things which were inclined to be countless in point of number, by a mode of teaching which was confined to general instances, he begins to admonish and to correct one appetite, that which is concerned about the belly; conceiving that the other appetites will not be equally restive, but will be brought to order by learning that the most important and authoritative of the whole has become obedient to the laws of moderation.

What, then, is the lesson which he gives us about this origin of all vices? There are two things of a most comprehensive nature, meat and drink. He, then, has not left either of them unrestrained, but has bridled them with especial commands most calculated to lead them to temperance and to humanity, and to the greatest of all virtues, piety;

for he commanded men to offer first fruits of corn, and wine, and oil, and cattle, and other things; [*]( Numbers xviii. 12.) and to distribute the first fruits among the sacrificers and the priests; among the sacrificers because of the gratitude due to God for the abundance and fertility of all things, and to the priests because of their sacred ministrations about the temple, and therefore they were worthy to receive wages for their services in respect of the sacred ceremonies. [*]( Numbers xviii. 31.)

And he utterly forbids any one to taste of anything, or to take any portion of anything, before separating off the first fruits, wishing also by this injunction to inculcate the practise of most useful temperance; for he who has learnt not to throw himself greedily on all the abundance which the seasons of the year have brought, but to wait till the first fruits are consecrated, [*]( Numbers xviii. 12.) [*]( Numbers xviii. 31.)

Moreover, Moses has not granted an unlimited possession and use of all other animals to those who partake in his sacred constitution, but he has forbidden with all his might all animals, whether of the land, or of the water, or that fly through the air, which are most fleshy and fat, and calculated to excite treacherous pleasure, well knowing that such, attracting as with a bait that most slavish of all the outward senses, namely, taste, produce insatiability, an incurable evil to both souls and bodies, for insatiability produces indigestion, which is the origin and source of all diseases and weaknesses.