De sollertia animalium

[*](On this chapter see T. Weidlich, Die Sympathie in Altertum, p. 42.) Yet perhaps it is ridiculous for us to make a parade of animals distinguished for learning when Democritus[*](Diels-Kranz, Frag. der Vorsok. ii, p. 173, frag. 154; Cf. Bailey on Lucretius, v. 1379 (vol. iii, p. 1540 of his edition); Aelian, De Natura Animal. xii. 16.) declares that we have been their pupils in matters of fundamental importance: of the spider in weaving and mending, of the swallow in homebuilding, of the sweet-voiced swan and nightingale[*](Cf. 973 a supra.) in our imitation of their song. Further, of the three divisions of medicine,[*](As given here, cure by (1) drugs, (2) diet, (3) surgery. There are five divisions in Diogenes Laertius, iii. 85; al. ) we can discern in animals a generous portion of each; for it is not cure by drugs alone of wrhich they make use. After devouring a serpent tortoises[*](Cf. Mor. 918 c, 991 e; Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 12 and Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 6 (612 a 24); of wounded partridges and storks and doves in Aelian, op. cit. v. 46 (Aristotle, op. cit. 612 a 32).) take a dessert of marjoram, and weasels[*](Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 6 (612 a 28).) of rue. Dogs[*](See Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 6 (612 a 6); add Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, i. 71.) purge themselves when bilious by a certain kind of grass. The snake[*](Pliny, Nat. Hist. xx. 254. Other details of snake diet in Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 4.) sharpens and restores its fading sight with fennel. When the she-bear comes forth from her lair,[*](As in 971 d-e supra.) the first thing she eats is wild arum[*](Probably the Adam-and-Eve (Arum maculatum L.), since the Italian arum (Arum italicum Mill.) was cultivated. See Aristotle, Historia Animal. viii. 17 (600 b 11); ix. 6 (611 b 34); Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 129; Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 3. Oribasius (Coll. Med. iii. 24. 5) characterizes wild arum as an aperient.); for its acridity opens her gut which has become constricted. At other times, when she suffers from nausea,[*](When she has swallowed the fruit of the mandrake, according to Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 101.) she resorts to anthills and sits, holding out her tongue all running and juicy with sweet liquor until it is covered with ants; these she swallows[*](Aristotle, Historia Animal. viii. 4 (594 b 9); Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 3; Sextus Empiricus, op. cit. i. 57.) and is

Then, too, some beasts cure themselves by a short fast, like wolves[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. iv. 15; see the hippopotamus in Amm. Marc. xx. 15. 23.) and lions who, when they are surfeited with flesh, lie still for a while, basking in the sun. And they say a tigress, if a kid is given her, will keep fasting for two days without eating; on the third, she grows hungry and asks for some other food. She will even pull her cage to pieces, but will not touch the kid which she has now come to regard as a fellow-boarder and room mate.[*](Of a leopard in Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 2. This account seems to indicate a lacuna in our text explaining why the tigress did not eat the kid in the first place: because she had already had enough to eat. )

Yet again, they relate that elephants employ surgery: they do, in fact, bring aid to the wounded[*](For an example see the anecdote of Porus in 970 d supra, 977 b infra; Juba, frag. 52 (Jacoby); Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 45.) by easily and harmlessly drawing out spears and javelins and arrows without any laceration of the flesh. And Cretan goats,[*](Cf. 991 f infra; Philo, 38 (p. 119); Vergil, Aen. xii. 415; Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 6 (612 a 3); Pease, Melanges Marouzeau, 1948, p. 472.) when they eat dittany,[*](Cretan dittany (Origanum dictamnus L.); Pliny, Nat. Hist. xx. 156.) easily expel arrows from their bodies and so have presented an easy lesson for women with child to take to heart, that the herb has an abortive property[*](Cf. Pease, op. cit. p. 471.); for there is nothing except dittany that the goats, when they are wounded, rush to search for.

These matters, though wonderful, are less surprising than are those creatures which have cognition of number and can count,[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. iv. 53.) as do the cattle near Susa. At that place they irrigate the royal park with water raised in buckets by wheels, and the number of bucketfuls is prescribed. For each cow raises one hundred bucketfuls each day, and more you could not get from her, even if you wanted to use force. In fact, they often try to add to the number to see; but the cow balks and will not continue when once she has delivered her quota, so accurately does she compute and remember the sum, as Ctesias[*](Frag. 53 b, ed. Gilmore (p. 196); Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 1.) of Cnidus has related.

The Libyans laugh at the Egyptians for telling a fabulous tale about the oryx,[*](See Mair on Oppian, Cyn. ii. 446.) that it lets out a cry[*](A sneeze, according to Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 107; Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 8.) at that very day and hour when the star rises that they call Sothis,[*](Cf. Mor. 359 d, 376 a.) which we call the Dog Star or Sirius. At any rate, when this star rises flush with the sun, practically all the goats turn about and look toward the east; and this is the most certain sign of its return and agrees most exactly with the tables of mathematical calculation.[*](They watched for the first sight of Sirius before daybreak about June 20; the date shifted in the Egyptian calendar.)

But that my discourse may add its finishing touch and terminate, let me make the move from the sacred line [*](See Mor. 783 b with Fowler’s note; also 1116 e; Plato, Laws, 739 a; and Gow on Theocritus, vi. 18. The meaning is probably something like let me play my last trump, or commit my last reserve. ) and say a few words about the divine inspiration and the mantic power of animals.

HERACLEON. Raise your brows, dear Phaedimus, and rouse yourself to defend us the sea folk, the island-dwellers ! This bout of argument has become no child’s play, but a hard-fought contest, a debate which lacks only the actual bar and platform.[*](That is, it is so realistic that one might imagine oneself in the lawcourts or the public assembly.)

PHAEDIMUS. Not so, Heracleon, but an ambush laid with malice aforethought has been disclosed. While we are still tipsy and soused from yesterday’s bout, this gentleman, as you see, has attacked us with premeditation, cold sober. Yet there can be no begging off. Devotee of Pindar[*](Frag. 272, ed. Turyn (228 Schroeder, 215 Bowra); cf. Mor. 783 b; Leutsch and Schneidewin, Paroemiographi Graeci, i, p. 44; Plato, Cratylus, 421 d.) though I am, I do not want to be addressed with the quotation

1. To excuse oneself when combat is offered
2. Has consigned valour to deep obscurity;

The priests’ crocodiles[*](Cf. Aelian, loc. cit. ) not only recognize the voice of those who summon them and allow themselves to be handled, but open their mouths to let their teeth be cleaned by hand and wiped with towels. Recently our excellent Philinus came back from a trip to Egypt and told us that he had seen in Antaeopolis an old woman sleeping on a low bed beside a crocodile, which was stretched out beside her in a perfectly decorous way.

They have long been telling the tale that when King Ptolemy[*](Aelian, loc. cit., does not know which Ptolemy is meant; Cf. the story of Apis and Germanicus in Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 185; Amm. Marc. xxii. 14. 8.) summoned the sacred crocodile and it would not heed him or obey in spite of his entreaties and requests, it seemed to the priests an omen of his death, which came about not long after; whence it appears that the race of water creatures is not wholly unendowed with your precious gift of divination.[*](Cf. 975 b supra; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 55.) Indeed, I have heard that near Sura,[*](Aelian, De Natura Animal. viii. 5; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxii. 17.) a village in Lycia between Phellus and Myra, men sit and watch the gyrations and flights and pursuits of fish and

But let these examples suffice to show that sea animals are not entirely unrelated to us or cut off from human fellowship. Of their uncontaminated and native intelligence their caution is strong evidence. For nothing that swims and does not merely stick or cling to rocks is easily taken or captured without trouble by man as are asses by wolves, bees by bee-eaters,[*](A bird: Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 13 (615 b 25); Aelian, De Natura Animal. v. 11; Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 99.) cicadas by swallows, and snakes by deer, which easily attract them.[*](Aelian, De Natura Animal. viii. 6; v. 48.) This, in fact, is why deer are called elaphoi, not from their swiftness,[*](Elaphrotes.) but from their power of attracting snakes.[*](Helxis opheos, a fantastic etymology. Neither derivation is correct, elaphos being related to the Lithuanian elnis, deer. For the references see Mair on Oppian, Cyn. ii. 234.) So too the ram draws the wolf by stamping and they say that very many creatures, and particularly apes, are attracted to the panther by their pleasure in its scent.[*](See Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 6 (612 a 13); add Aelian, De Natura Animal. viii. 6; v. 40.) But in practically all sea-creatures any sensation is suspect and evokes an intelligently inspired defensive reaction against attack, so that fishing has been rendered no simple or trivial task, but needs all manner of implements and clever and deceitful tricks to use against the fish.

This is perfectly clear from ready examples: no one wants to have an angler s rod too thick, though it needs elasticity to withstand the thrashing of such fish as are caught; men select, rather, a slender rod so that it may not cast a broad shadow and arouse suspicion.[*](Cf. Gow on Theocritus, xxi. 10.) In the next place, they do not thicken

1. Like lead she[*](Iris going to visit Thetis.) sank into the great sea depths,
2. Like lead infixed in hora of rustic ox
3. Which brings destruction to the ravenous fish -

The sea-bass is braver than your elephant[*](Cf. 974 d supra.): it is not from another, but from himself without assistance, that he extracts the barb when he is caught by the hook; he swings his head from side to side to widen the wound, enduring the pain of tearing his flesh until he can throw off the hook.[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. i. 40, of the tunny; Ovid, Hal. 39 f. and Oppian, Hal. iii. 128 ff., of the bass.) The fox-shark[*](Plutarch seems here to have confused this fish with the so-called scolopendra (of which he writes correctly in Mor. 567 b; see also Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 424). Cf. Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 37 (621 a 11); Aelian, De Natura Animal. ix. 12; Varia Hist. i. 5; Mair on Oppian, Hal. iii. 144; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 145. There are fish (but not sharks) which can disgorge their stomachs and swallow them again. Note that hasty reading of Aristotle l.c. could easily cause this misstatement (Andrews).) does not often approach the hook and shuns the lure; but if he is caught, he immediately turns himself inside out, for by reason of the elasticity and flexibility of his body he can naturally shift and twist it about, so that when he is inside out, the hook falls away.

Now the examples I have given indicate intelligence and an ingenious, subtle use of it for opportune

Yet we know of no land animal that has the courage to assist another in danger - not bear or boar or lioness or panther. True it is that in the arena those of the same kind draw close together and huddle in a circle; yet they have neither knowledge nor desire to help each other. Instead, each one flees to get as far as possible from a wounded or dying fellow. That tale of the elephants[*](Cf. 972 b supra; Jacoby, Frag. der griech. Hist. iii, p. 146, frag. 51 b. On the community spirit of elephants see also Aelian, De Natura Animal. v. 49; vi. 61; vii. 15; al. ) carrying brushwood to the pits and giving their fallen comrade a ramp to

Now fishermen, observing that most fish evade the striking of the hook by such countermoves as wrestlers use, resorted, like the Persians,[*](Cf. Herodotus, vi. 31; iii. 149; Plato, Laws 698 d; Fraenkel on Aesch. Agam. 358. On kinds of nets see Mair, L.C.L. Oppian, pp. xl ff.) to force and used the dragnet, since for those caught in it there could be no escape with the help of reason or cleverness. For mullet and rainbow-wrasse[*](Coris iulis Gth. Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 3 (610 b 7); A Glossary of Greek Fishes, p. 91; Schmid, op. cit. p. 292; Brands, op. cit. p. 157; Cotte, op. cit. pp. 59-60; Saint-Denis, op. cit. p. 52.) are caught by casting-nets and round nets, as are also the bream[*](In particular, probably Pagellus mormyrus C.V. On the identification cf. Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. vi. 7 (570 b 20); Glossary, p. 161; Cotte, op. cit. pp. 105-107; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 65-66.) and the sargue[*](In particular, probably Sargus culgaris Geoff. On the identification Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. v. 9 (543 a 7); Glossary, pp. 227-228; Cotte, op. cit. pp. 105-107; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 99, 107-108; Keller, Die antike Tierwelt, ii, p. 370; Gossen-Steier, RE, Second Series, ii. 365.) and the goby[*](A term mostly for the black goby, Gobius niger L., the most common Mediterranean species. On the identification Cf. Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. viii. 14 (598 a 12); Glossary, pp. 137-139; Gossen, RE, Second Series, ii. 794-796.) and the sea-bass. The so-called net fish, that is surmullet[*](The red or plain surmullet, Mullus barbatus L., and the striped or common surmullet, Mullus surmuletus L. On this fish cf. Cotte, op. cit. pp. 98-101; Keller, op. cit. ii, pp. 364 f.; Prechac, Revue d. Et. Lat. xiv (1936), pp. 102-105; xvii (1939), p. 279; Saint-Denis, op. cit. pp. 68 f.; Schmid, op. cit. pp. 310-312; Steier, RE, xvi. 496-503; Thompson, Glossary, pp. 264-268; Andrews, Class. Weekly, xlii (1949), pp. 186-188.)

Now when the dolphin is caught and perceives itself to be trapped in the net, it bides its time, not at all disturbed but well pleased, for it feasts without stint on the fish that have been gathered with no trouble to itself. But as soon as it comes near the shore, it bites its way through the net and makes its escape. Yet if it should not get away in time, on the first occasion it suffers no harm: the fishermen merely sew rushes to its crest and let it go. But if it is taken a second time, they recognize it from the seam and punish it with a beating. This, however, rarely occurs: most dolphins are grateful for their pardon in the first instance and take care to do no harm in the future.[*](On the alliance of dolphins and fisherman see Aelian, De Natura Animal. ii. 8; xi. 12; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 29 ff.)

Further, among the many examples of wariness,

As for cleverness in attacking and catching prey, we may perceive subtle examples of it in many different species. The starfish,[*]([Aristotle], Historia Animal. v. 15 (548 a 7 f.), an interpolated passage; nor can we be certain that it was known to Plutarch. See also Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 181.) for example, knowing that everything with which it comes in contact dissolves and liquefies, offers its body and is indifferent to the contact of those that overtake or meet it. You know, of course, the property of the torpedo[*](Or electric ray or crampfish: for the ancient references see Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ic. 37 (620 b 12-23); Glossary, pp. 169-172; Aelian, De Natura Animal. i. 36; ix. 14; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 143; Mair, L.C.L. Oppian, p. lxix, and on Hal. ii. 56; iii. 149; Philo, 30 (p. 115); Antigonus, Hist. Mirab. 48; Boulenger, World Natural History, pp. 189 f.): not only does it paralyse all those who touch it, but even through the net creates a heavy numbness in the hands of the trawlers. And some who have experimented further with it report that if it is washed ashore alive and you pour water on it from above, you may perceive the numbness mounting to the hand and dulling your sense of touch by way of

The so-called fisherman[*](The fishing-frog, Lophius piscatorius L.: Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 37 (620 b 12); Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 144; Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 86; Strömberg, Gr. Fischnamen, pp. 122 f.) is known to many; he gets his name from his actions. Aristotle[*](Historia Animal. ix. 37 (622 a 1); cf. iv. 1 (524 a 3), iv. 6 (531 b 6); Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 83 ff.; Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 122.) says that the cuttlefish also makes use of this stratagem: he lets down, like a fishing line, a tentacle from his neck which is naturally designed to extend to a great length when it is released, or to be drawn to him when it is pulled in. So when he espies a little fish, he gives it the feeler to bite and then by degrees imperceptibly draws it back toward himself until the prey attached to the arm is within reach of his mouth.

As for the octopus’ change of colour,[*](Cf. Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 37 (622 a 8); Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 233. Athenaeus, 316 f, 317 f, 513 d; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 87; Antigonus, Hist. Mirab. 25, 50; Aelian, Varia Hist. i. 1; and Wellmann, Hermes, li, p. 40.) Pindar[*](Frag. 43 Schroeder, 208 Turyn, 235 Bowra (p. 516, ed. Sandys L.C.L.); cf. Mor. 916 c and Turyn’s references.) has made it celebrated in the words

1. To all the cities to which you resort
2. Bring a mind like the changing skin of the seabeast;

1. Be minded like the octopus’ hue:
2. The colour of its rock will meet the view.[*](Or Keep a mind as multicoloured as the octopus, )
3. [*](With the rock whereon it sits homologous (Andrews).)

The chameleon,[*](See Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. ii. 11 (503 b 2); Ogle on De Part. Animal. iv. 11 (692 a 22 ff.). See also Aelian, De Natura Animal, iv. 33; and cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 122 for the chameleon’s exclusive diet of air; nec alio quam aeris alimento.) to be sure, is metachromatic, but not from any design or desire to conceal itself; it changes colour uselessly from fear, being naturally timid and cowardly. And this is consistent with the abundance of air in it, as Theophrastus[*](Frag. 189 Wimmer (p. 225); Aristotle says merely, The change takes place when it is inflated by air. ) says; for nearly the whole body of the creature is occupied by its lungs,[*](Which confirms Karsch’s emendation of Aristotle, Historia Animal. ii. 11 (503 b 21); for Theophrastus and Plutarch must have had lungs and not membranes in their text of Aristotle.) which shows it to be full of air and for this reason easily moved to change colour. But this same action on the part of the octopus is not an emotional response, but a deliberate change, since it uses this device to escape what it fears and to capture what it feeds on: by this deceit it can both seize the latter, which does not try to escape, and avoid the former, which proceeds on its way. Now the story that it eats its own tentacles[*](See 965 e supra and the note; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 87; Mor. 1059 e, 1098 e, Comm. in Hes. fr. 53 (Bernardakis, vol. VII, p. 77).) is a lie, but it is true that it fears the moray and the conger. It is, in fact, maltreated by them; for it cannot do them harm, since they slip from its grasp. On the other hand, when the crawfish[*](The langouste as distinguished from the homard; see Aelian, De Natura Animal. i. 32; ix. 25; x. 38; Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. viii. 2 (590 b 16); Glossary, pp. 102 ff.; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 185; Antigonus, Hist. Mirab. 92.) has once got them in its grasp,

We have, to be sure, heard Aristotimus[*](Cf. 972 a supra. Valentine Rose, curiously enough, emended to Aristotle (see Historia Animal. ix. 6, 612 b 4) and included this passage in Frag. 342. See further Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 226.) telling us about the hedgehog’s foreknowledge of the winds; and our friend also admired the V-shaped flight of cranes.[*](Cf. 967 b supra.) I can produce no hedgehog of Cyzicus or Byzantium,[*](Perhaps he is learnedly confuting Aristotimus (972 a supra) by drawing on Aristotle.) but instead the whole body of sea-hedgehogs,[*](i.e. the sea-urchin, regarded by the ancients as a sort of marine counterpart of the hedgehog because of the similar spines.) which, when they perceive that storm and surf are coming, ballast themselves with little stones[*](Cf. 967 b supra, of bees.) in order that they may not be capsized by reason of their lightness or be swept away by the swell, but may remain fixed in position through the weight of their little rocks.

Again, the cranes’ change of flight against the wind[*](Cf. 967 b supra.) is not merely the action of one species: all fish generally have the same notion and always swim against wave and current, taking care that a blast from the rear does not fold back their scales and expose and roughen their bodies. For this reason they always present the prow of their bodies to the waves, for in that way head first they cleave the sea, which depresses

The tunny[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. ix. 42; Aristotle, Historia Animal. viii. 13 (598 b 25 f.).) is so sensitive to equinox and solstice that it teaches even men themselves without the need of astronomical tables; for wherever it may be when the winter solstice overtakes it, in that same place it stands and stays until the equinox. As for that clever device of the crane,[*](See 967 c supra.) the grasping of the stone by night so that if it falls, she may awake from sleep - how much cleverer, my friend, is the artifice of the dolphin, for whom it is illicit to stand still or to cease from motion.[*](Reiske may have been right in suspecting a trimeter of unknown origin in these words.) For its nature is to be ever active[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. xi. 22. The dolphin even nurses its young while in motion; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xi. 235; and cf. Aristotle, Historia Animal. ii. 13 (504 b 21 ff.).): the termination of its life and its movement is one and the same. When it needs sleep, it rises to the surface of the sea and allows itself to sink deeper and deeper on its back, lulled to rest by the swinging motion of the ground swell[*](As it were, the cradle of the deep.) until it touches the bottom. Thus roused, it goes whizzing up, and when it reaches the surface, again goes slack, devising for itself a kind of rest combined

Having just a moment ago given you an account of the tunny’s mathematical foreknowledge of the reversal of the sun, of which Aristotle[*](Historia Animal. viii. 13 (598 b 25).) is a witness, I beg you to hear the tale of their arithmetical learning. But first, I swear, I must mention their knowledge of optics, of which Aeschylus[*](Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag. p. 96, frag. 308; Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. ix. 42.) seems not to have been ignorant, for these are his words:

Squinting the left eye like a tunny fish.

Schooling together has also given the bonitos their name of amia [*](Similarly, Athenaeus (vii. 278 a; Cf. 324 d) quotes Aristotle as defining amia as not solitary, i.e. running in schools. Actually the term is probably foreign, perhaps of Egyptian origin (Cf. Thompson, Glossary, p. 13).) and I think this is true of year-old tunnies as well.[*](Plutarch takes pelamys to be compound of pelein to be and hama with, with references to their running in schools. It was also anciently presumed to be a compound of pelos mud and myein be shut in or enclosed, because of its habit of hiding in the mud (Cf. Aristotle, Historia Animal. 599 b 18; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 47). Most scholars now regard it as a loan from the Mediterranean substratum, although Thompson (Glossary, p. 198) suggests that it may be of Asiatic origin, since it was used especially of the tunny in the Black Sea.) As for the other kinds which are observed to live in shoals in mutual society, it is impossible to state their number. Let us rather, therefore, proceed to examine those that have a special partnership, that is, symbiosis. One of these is the pinna-guard,[*](See Thompson, Glossary, p. 202.) over which Chrysippus[*](Von Arnim, S.V.F. ii, p. 208, frag. 729 b (Athenaeus, 89 d). Cf. also fragments 729, 729 a, and 730. On the place of the pinna in Chrysippus’ theology see A. S. Pease, Harv. Theol. Rev. xxxiv (1941), p. 177.) spilled a very great deal of ink; indeed it has a reserved seat in every single book of his, whether ethical or physical.[*](Cf. Mor. 1035 b, 1038 b.) Chrysippus has obviously not investigated the sponge-guard[*](A little crab that lives in the hollow chambers of a sponge. See Thompson, loc. cit. ); otherwise he could hardly have left it out. Now the pinna-guard is a crab-like creature, so they say, who lives with the pinna[*](On this bivalve shellfish see Thompson, Glossary, p. 200; Mair on Oppian, Hal. ii. 186.) and

The sponge is governed by a little creature not resembling a crab, but much like a spider.[*](Nevertheless, it is a crab, Typton spongicola.) Now the sponge[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. viii. 16; Aristotle, Historia Animal. v. 16 (548 a 28 ff.); Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 148; Antigonus, 83; Mair on Oppian, Hal. v. 656; Thompson, Glossary, pp. 249-250.) is no lifeless, insensitive, bloodless thing; though it clings to the rocks,[*](Cf. W. Jaeger, Nemesios con Emesa, p. 116, n. 1.) as many other animals do, it has a peculiar movement outward and inward which needs, as it were, admonition and supervision. In any case it is loose in texture and its pores are relaxed because of its sloth and dullness; but when anything edible enters, the guard gives the signal, and it closes up and consumes the prey. Even more, if a man approaches or touches it, informed by the scratching of the guard, it shudders, as it were, and so closes itself up by stiffening and contracting that it is not an easy, but a very difficult, matter for the hunters to undercut it.

The purplefish[*](See Aristotle, Historia Animal. v. 15 (546 b 19 ff.) quoted in Athenaeus, 88 d - 89 a; De Gen. Animal. iii. 11 (761 b 32 ff.); Thompson, Glossary, pp. 209-218.) lives in colonies which build up a comb together, like bees. In this the species is said to propagate; they catch at edible bits of oystergreen and seaweed that stick to shells, and furnish each other with a sort of periodic rotating banquet, as they feed one after another in series.

And why should anyone be surprised at the

The so-called guide [*](The name and the activity are appropriate to the pilot-fish (Cf. Oppian, Hal. v. 62 ff.; Aelian, De Natura Animal. ii. 13), but the description fits rather one of the globe-fishes, such as Diodon hystrix (cf. Thompson, Glossary, p. 75). See also Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 186; xi. 165, who calls it the sea mouse. Actually the pilot is just a sponger and accompanies the shoals with the sole object of picking up such crumbs as may fall from their table. Boulenger, Animal Mysteries, p. 105.) is a small fish, in size and shape like a goby; but by reason of the roughness of its scales it is said to resemble a ruffled bird. It always accompanies one of the great whales, swimming in front of it and directing its course so that it

Is it, then, justifiable to compare with these associations and companionships those friendships which Aristotle[*](Frag. 354, ed. V. Rose.) says exist between foxes and snakes because of their common hostility to the eagle; or those between bustards and horses[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. ii. 28 and Mair on Oppian, Cyn. ii. 406.) because the former like to approach and pick over the dung ? As for me, I perceive even in ants or bees no such concern for each other. It is true that every one of

PHAEDIMUS. And we shall observe this difference even more clearly when we turn our attention to the oldest and most important of social institutions and duties, those concerned with generation and procreation. Now in the first place those fish that inhabit a sea that borders on lagoons or receives rivers resort to these when they are ready to deposit then; eggs, seeking the tranquillity and smoothness of fresh water, since calm is a good midwife. Besides, lagoons and rivers are devoid of sea monsters,[*](See 981 e infra; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 71.) so that the eggs and fry may survive. This is the reason why the Black Sea is most favoured for spawning by very many fish. It breeds no large sea beasts at all except an infrequent seal and a small dolphin[*](Cf. Aristotle, Historia Animal. viii. 13 (598 b 2); Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 49 f.; Aelian, De Natura Animal. iv. 9; ix. 59; Mair on Oppian, Hal. i. 599; Amm. Marc. xxii. 8. 47; Thompson, Glossary, pp. 54, 281.); besides, the influx of rivers - and those which empty into the Black Sea are numerous and very large - creates a gentle blend conducive to the production of offspring. The most wonderful tale is told about the anthias,[*](On the identity see note on 977 c supra.) which Homer[*](Iliad, xvi. 407.) calls Sacred Fish. [*](See Gow on Theocritus, frag. 3. Homer does not call the anthias Sacred Fish, but merely alludes to a sacred fish; and in later times several were so regarded.) Yet some think that sacred means important, just as we call the important bone os sacrum [*](The last bone of the spine.) and epilepsy, an important disease, the sacred disease.[*](Cf. [Hippocrates], De Morbo Sacro (L.C.L., vol. ii, pp. 138 ff.); Herodotus, iii. 33; Plato, Timaeus, 85 a-b.) Others interpret it in the ordinary sense as meaning dedicated or consecrated.

Swift courser golden-browed, the sacred fish.

PHAEDIMUS. Then again the care of the young is shared by both parents: the males do not eat their own young, but stand by the spawn to guard the eggs, as Aristotle[*](Historia Animal. ix. 37 (621 a 21 ff.); cf. Herodotus, ii. 93.) relates. Some follow the female and sprinkle the eggs gradually with milt, for otherwise

The affection of the dogfish[*](Cf. Mor. 494 c; 730 e; Thompson on Aristotle, Historia Animal. vi. 10 (565 a 22 ff., b 2 ff.); Glossary, pp. 39-42; Mair on Oppian, Hal. i. 734.) for its young is not inferior in warmth and kindliness to that of any of the tamest animals; for they lay the egg, then sustain and carry the newlyhatehed young, not without, but within themselves, as if from a second birth. When the young grow larger, the parents let them out and teach them to swim close by; then again they collect them through their mouths and allow their bodies to be used as dwelling-places, affording at once room and board and sanctuary until the young become strong enough to shift for themselves.[*](Aristotle (Historia Animal. 565 b 24) reports that some dogfish brought forth their young by the mouth and took them therein again. Athenaeus (vii. 294 e) says that the dogfish took the young just hatched into its mouth and emitted them again. Plutarch has a somewhat garbled version of this presumed process, blended with data on the parental care of dolphins (cf. Plin. N.H. ix. 21) (Andrews).)

Wonderful also is the care of the tortoise for the birth and preservation of her young. To bear them she comes out of the sea to the shore near at hand; but since she is unable to incubate the eggs or to remain on dry land for long, she deposits them on the strand and heaps over them the smoothest and softest part of the sand. When she has buried and concealed them securely,[*](Cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 37; contrast the forgetful lizard (x. 187).) some say that she scratches and scribbles the place with her feet, making it easy

The accounts given of the crocodile are similar in other respects, but the animal’s ability to estimate the right place goes beyond man’s power to guess or calculate the cause. Hence they affirm that this creature’s foreknowledge is divine and not rational. For neither to a greater or a less distance, but just so far as the Nile will spread that season and cover the land in flood, just so far does she go to deposit her eggs, with such accuracy that any farmer finding the eggs may know himself and predict to others how far the river will advance.[*](See Aelian, De Natura Animal. v. 52; and compare B. Evans, The Natural History of Nonsense, p. 33.) And her purpose in being so exact is to prevent either herself or her eggs getting wet when she sits on them. When they are hatched, the one which, upon emerging, does not immediately seize in its mouth anything that comes along, fly or midge or worm or straw or plant, the mother tears to pieces and bites to death[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. ix. 3; contrast Pliny, Nat. Hist.x. 10; Antigonus, 46, of the sea eagle; Lucan, ix. 902 ff., of the eagle. See also Julian, Epistle 59 (383 c); 78 (418 d) with Wright’s note (L.C.L. vol. iii, p. 259, n. 2).); but those that are bold and active she loves and tends, thus

Furthermore, seals[*](Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. ix. 9; Oppian, Hal. i. 686 ff.; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ix. 41.) too bear their young on dry land and little by little induce their offspring to try the sea, then quickly take them out again. This they do often at intervals until the young are conditioned in this way to feel confidence and enjoy life in the sea.

Frogs in their coupling use a call, the so-called ololygon,[*](See Gow on Theocritus, vii. 139; Boulenger, Animal Mysteries, pp. 67 f.) a cry of wooing and mating. When the male has thus attracted the female, they wait for the night together, for they cannot consort in the water and during the day they are afraid to do so on land; but when the darkness falls, they come out and embrace with impunity. On other occasions when their cry is shrill, it is because they expect rain.[*](Cf. Mor. 912 c-d; Aratus, Phaenomena, 946 ff.; Cf. Aelian, De Natura Animal. vi. 19; ix. 13.) And this is among the surest of signs.

But, dear Poseidon! What an absurd and ridiculous error I have almost fallen into: while I am spending my time on seals and frogs, I have neglected and omitted the wisest of sea creatures, the most beloved of the gods For what nightingales are to be compared with the halcyon[*](See Thompson, Glossary of Greek Birds, s.v.; Kraak, Mnemosyne (3rd series), vii. 142; Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 89 ff.; Aelian, De Natura Animal. vii. 17; Gow on Theocritus, vii. 57; and the pleasant work Halcyon found in mss. of Lucian and Plato.) for its love of sweet sound, or what swallows for its love of offspring, or what doves for its love of its mate, or what bees for its skill in construction ? What creature’s procreation

As for love of her offspring and care for their preservation, as soon as she perceives herself to be pregnant, she applies herself to building the nest,[*](Cf. Mor. 494 a-b; Aristotle, Historia Animal. ix. 13 (616 a 19 ff.); Aelian, De Natura Animal. ix. 17.) not making pats of mud or cementing it on walls and

Once such a thing in Delos near Apollo’s shrine[*](Homer, Odyssey, vi. 162. That there was some religious mystery associated with the so-called nest is indicated by the close of Plutarch’s description. (Thompson on Aristotle, loc. cit.))

Furthermore, many of the Greeks have temples and altars to Artemis Dictynna[*](As though Artemis of the Net; see Callimachus, Hymn iii. 198.) and Apollo Delphinios; and that place which the god had chosen for himself the poet[*](Homer, Hymn to Apollo, iii. 393 ff. (as restored by van Herwerden). For Delphinian Apollo see lines 495 f.) says was settled by Cretans under the guidance of a dolphin. It was not, however, the god who changed his shape and swam in front of the expedition, as tellers of tales relate; instead, he sent a dolphin to guide the men and bring them to Cirrha.[*](The port of Delphi.) They also relate that Soteles and Dionysius, the men sent by Ptolemy Soter[*](Cf. Mor. 361 f; Tacitus, Histories, iv. 83-84.) to Sinope to bring back Serapis, were driven against their will by a violent wind out of their course beyond Malea, with the Peloponnesus on their right. When they were lost and discouraged, a dolphin appeared by the

Well might the god be fond of the music-loving character of the dolphin,[*](Cf. Mor. 162 f; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xi. 137.) to which Pindar[*](Page 597, ed. Sandys (L.C.L.); frag. 125, line 69-71 ed. Bowra (O.C.T.); frag. 222. 14-17, ed. Turyn. The quotation is found also in Mor. 704 f - 705 a. The lines were partially recovered in Oxyrhynchus Papyri, iii. 408 b (1903); for the critical difficulties see Turyn’s edition.) likens himself, saying that he is roused

1. Like a dolphin of the sea
2. Who on the waveless deep of ocean
3. Is moved by the lovely sound of flutes.

But you failed to reach the end of the tale.[*](Homer, Iliad, ix. 56.)

Myrsilus[*](Müller, Frag. Hist. Graec. iv, p. 459; Jacoby, Frag. d. griech. Hist. ii, frag. 12; cf. Mor. 163 b-d; Athenaeus, 466 c gives as his authority Anticleides.) of Lesbos tells the tale of Enalus the Aeolian who was in love with that daughter of Smintheus who, in accordance with the oracle of Amphitrite, was cast into the sea by the Penthilidae, whereupon Enalus himself leaped into the sea and was brought out safe on Lesbos by a dolphin.

And the goodwill and friendship of the dolphin for

From this the wild tales about Coeranus[*](Aelian, De Natura Animal. viii. 3; Athenaeus, 606 e-f cites from Phylarchus, Book XII (Jacoby, Frag. d. griech. Hist. i, p. 340). There are many other examples of dolphins rescuing people, such as the fragment of Euphorion in Page, Greek Literary Papyri, i, p. 497 (L.C.L.).) gained credence. He was a Parian by birth who, at Byzantium, bought a draught of dolphins which had been caught in a net and were in danger of slaughter, and set them all free. A little later he was on a sea voyage in a penteconter, so they say, with fifty pirates aboard; in the strait between Naxos and Paros the ship capsized and all the others were lost, while Coeranus, they relate, because a dolphin sped beneath him and buoyed him up, was put ashore at

Out of fifty, kindly Poseidon left only Coeranus.[*](Edmonds, op. cit. ii, p. 164; Diehl, Anth. Lyrica, i, p. 243. frag. 117.)

That the shield of Odysseus had a dolphin emblazoned on it, Stesichorus[*](Edmonds, Lyra Graeca, ii, p. 66, frag. 71.) also has related; and the Zacynthians perpetuate the reason for it, as Critheus[*](Nothing whatever is known about this author, whose name may be given incorrectly in our mss.) testifies. For when Telemachus was a small boy, so they say, he fell into the deep inshore water and was saved by dolphins who came to his aid and swam with him to the beach; and that was the reason why his father had a dolphin engraved on his ring and emblazoned on his shield, making this requital to the animal.

Yet since I began by saying that I would not tell you any tall tales and since, without observing what I was up to, I have now, besides the dolphins, run aground on both Odysseus and Coeranus to a point beyond belief, I lay this penalty upon myself: to conclude here and now.

ARISTOTIMUS.[*](Perhaps rather Heracleon (975 c) or Optatus (965 d).) So, gentlemen of the jury, you may now cast your votes.

SOCLARUS. As for us, we have for some time held the view of Sophocles[*](Nauck, Trag. Graec. Frag. p. 314, frag. 783; Pearson, iii, p. 69, frag. 867.):

1. It is a marvel how of rival sides
2. The strife of tongues welds both so close together.

A word of caution is needed: Plutarch emphatically was no naturalist. The zoological material is a hodge-podge of misinformation dredged up from various zoological sources, seasoned here and there with personal contributions, which are not necessarily correct. In the original sources, terms for specific types of animals were probably used with considerable precision. It is my impression that Plutarch often had only a vague idea of the meaning of such terms. For example, he consistently uses the specific term for a rock dove, but probably had in mind any type of domestic dove. Similarly, dorcas was used in Greece commonly as a term for the roedeer, but in Asia Minor for the common gazelle. In the original sources the word probably denoted specifically one or the other, depending on where the man lived; but Plutarch may well have used the term vaguely for any type of small deer, including gazelles and antelopes. Alfred C. Andrews

1. Mammals

Αἴλουρος: wild cat of Egypt (Felis ocreata Gm.) and of Europe (F. silvestris Schreb.) and domestic form (F. domestica Briss.).

Αἴξ: domestic goat, Capra hircus L.

Ἀλώπηξ: fox, esp. Vulpes vulgaris Flem.

Ἄρκτος: bear, more esp. the European brown bear, Ursus arctos L.

Βοῦς: domestic ox, Bos taurus L.

Γαλέη (γαλῆ): the weasel (Putorius vulgaris Cuv.), and such similar animals as the marten (Martes sp.) and the polecat or foumart (Mustela putorius L.).

Δασύρους: hare (see Λαγωός).

Δελφίς: dolphin, esp. Delphinus delphis L.

Δορκάς: in Greece, usually a term for the roedeer, Capreolus capreolus L.; in Asia Minor, usually a term for the common gazelle, Gazella dorcas L.

*Ἔλαφος: in Greece, usually a term for the red-deer, Cervus elaphus L.; in Ionia, usually a term for the fallow-deer, C. dama L.

᾽Ελέφας: elephant, Elephas indicus L. and Ε. africanus Blumenb.

Ἔριφος: usually a kid (see Αἴξ); sometimes a very young lamb (see Ὄϊς).

᾽Εχῖνος (χερσαῖος): common hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus L.

Ἡμίονος: mule, usually by mare and he-ass, sometimes by stallion and she-ass; in Syria, a term for the wild ass (Asinus onager Sm.) or the dschigetai (A. hemionus Sm.).

Ἵππος: horse, Caballus caballus L.

Ἵππος ποτάμιος: hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius L.

Ἰχνεύμων: ichneumon, Herpestes ichneumon L.

Κάμηλος: the Bactrian camel, Camelus bactrianus L., and the Arabian camel or dromedary, C. dromedarius L.

Κάπρος: wild boar, mostly Sus scrofa ferus Rütimeyer.

Κῆτος: in Plutarch usually whale, as in 980 F. See also Κῆτος under FISHES.

Κριός: ram (see Ὀϊς).

Κύων: dog, Canis familiaris L.

Λαγωός: hare, esp. the common European hare (Lepus europaeus Pall.), to a lesser degree the variable hare (L. timidus L.).

Λέων: lion, Felis leo L.

Λύνξ: lynx, Lynx lynx L.; caracal, Lynx caracal Güld.

Λύκος: wolf, Canis lupus L.

Ὄϊς: domestic sheep, Ovis aries L.

Ὄνος: domestic ass, Asinus domesticus Sm.

Ὀρεύς: mule (see Ἡμίονος).

Ὄρυξ: chiefly the scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx leucoryx Pall.) and the straight-horned oryx (O. beisa Rüppel).

Πάρδαλις: panther or leopard, Felis pardus antiquorum Smith.

Πρόβατον: sheep (see Ὄϊς).

Σύς: pig, Sus scrofa domesticus Rütimeyer.

Ταῦρος: bull (see Βοῦς).

Τίγρις: tiger, Felis tigris L.

Φώην: seal, including the common seal (Phoca vitulina L.) and the monk seal (P. monachus Herm.).

2. Birds

Ἀετός: eagle, esp. Aquila sp.

Ἀηδών: nightingale, chiefly Luscinia megarhyncha Brehm.

Ἀλεκτρυών: domestic cock, Gallus domesticus Briss.

Ἀλκυών: kingfisher, Alcedo ispida L.

Γέρανος: common crane, Grus grus L.

Ἐρωδιός: heron, including the common heron (Ardea cinerea L.), the greater European egret (Herodias alba Gray), the lesser European egret (Garzetta garzetta L.), and the bittern (Botaurus stellaris L.).

Ἶβις: ibis, including the sacred white ibis (Ibis aethiopica Ill.) and the black ibis (Plegades falcinellus Kaup.).

Ἱεραξ: smaller hawks and falcons generically.

Ἰκτῖνος: kite, including the common kite (Milvus ictinus Sav.) and the black kite (Μ. ater Gm.).

Κίττα: jay, Garrulus glandarius L.; sometimes the magpie, Pica caudata L.

Κολοιός: jackdaw, Corvus monedula L.

Κόραξ: raven, Corvus corax L.

Κορώνη: crow (Corvus corone L.) and hooded crow (C. cornix L.).

Κύκνος: swan, Cygnus olor Gra. and C. musicus Bkst.

Μέροψ: bee-eater, Merops apiaster L.

Πελαργός: stork, esp. Ciconia alba L.

Πέρδιξ: partridge, esp. the Greek partridge, Alectoris graeca Kaup; in Italy also the red-legged partridge, A. rufa Kaup.

Περιστερά: rock-dove, Columba livia L.; domestic rock-dove, C. livia domestica L.

Τροχίλος: Egyptian plover, Pluvianus aegyptius Viell.; elsewhere also the common European wren, Troglodytes troglodytes L.

Χελιδών: swallow, including the chimney swallow (Chelidon rustica L.) and the house-martin (Chelidon urbica Boie).

Χήν: as a wild type, the gray or graylag goose (Anser cinereus Meyer) and the bean goose (Anser segetum Bonn.), often the domestic type of the gray goose.

Ψάρ: starling, Sturnus vulgaris L.

Ψιττακός: parrot, perhaps esp. Psittacus alexandri L. and P. torquatus Gm.

Ὠτίς: bustard, Otis tarda L.

Ὦτος: a horned or eared owl, not more specifically identifiable.

3. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA

Βάτραχος: frog, Rana sp. and allied genera.

Κροκόδειλος: Nile crocodile, Crocodilus niloticus Laur.

Ὄφις: serpent generically.

Χαμαιλέων: the African chameleon, Chameleo vulgaris Latr.

Χελώνη (χερσαία): tortoise, Testudo graeca L. and Τ. marginata Schoepff.; (θαλαττία): sea-turtle, Thalassochelys corticata Rondel.

4. FISHES

Ἁλιεύς: fishing-frog, Lophius piscatorius L.

Ἀλώπηξ: fox-shark, Alopecias vulpes Bp.

Ἀμία: bonito, more esp. the pelamid or belted bonito, Sarda sarda Cuv., to a lesser degree the bonito or striped-bellied tunny, Katsuwonus pelamis Kish.

Ἀνθίας: in 977 c probably the Mediterranean barbier, Serranus anthias C. V.; sometimes spoken of as a much larger fish, then of uncertain identity.

Βελόνη: usually the pipefish (Syngnathus rubescens Risso and S. acus L.) and the garfish (Belone imperialis Vincig. and Strongylura acus Lacép.); in 983 C indeterminable.

Γαλεός: generic term for sharks and dogfishes, more esp. Scyllium canicula Cuv., S. catulus Cuv., and Mustelus vulgaris Müll.

Γαλῆ: principally the hake and rockling, Phycis sp. and Motella sp.

Γόγγρος: conger-eel, Conger vulgaris Cuv.

Ἔλλοψ: probably mostly the common sturgeon, Acipenser sturio L.

Ἡγεμών: usually the pilot-fish, Naucrates ductor Cuv.; in 980 F apparently also one of the globe-fishes, such as Diodon hystrix L.

Θρίσσα: probably the shad, Alosa vulgaris C. V., or the sardinelle, Sardinella aurita C. V.

Θύννος: tunny, mostly the common tunny, Thunnus thynnus L.

Ἱερός: sacred, an epithet applied to several fish, more especially the Ἀμθίας, the gilthead, the sturgeon, the dolphin, and the pilotfish.

Ἰουλίς: rainbow-wrasse, Coris iulis Gth.

Κεστρεύς: the gray mullet in general, sometimes the common gray mullet, Mugil capito Cuv., in particular.

Κῆτος: sometimes a large sea monster (as in 981 D), in other authors sometimes a huge fish (such as a large tunny), but more commonly, and usually in Plutarch, a whale.

Κολίας: coly-mackerel, Pneumatophorus colias Gm.

Κωβιός: goby, chiefly the black goby, Gobius niger L.

Λάβραξ: sea-bass, Labrax lupus Cuv.

Μορμύρος: type of sea bream, the mormyrus, Pagellus mormyrus C. V.

Μύραινα: moray or murry, Muraena helena L.

Νάρκη: torpedo or electric ray, esp. Torpedo marmorata Risso, less commonly Τ. narce Nardo and Τ. hebetans Löwe.

Περαίας: a type of gray mullet (Mugil sp.).

Πηλαμύς: year-old tunny (see Θύννος).

Σαργός: sargue, esp. Sargus vulgaris Geoff.

Σκάρος: parrot-fish, Scarus cretensis C. V.

Σκορίος: sculpin, Scorpaena scrofa L. and S. porcus L.

Τρίγλα: the red or plain surmullet, Mullus barbatus L., and the striped or common surmullet, Μ. surmuletus L.

Φυκίς: a wrasse, probably specifically Crenilabrus pavo C. V.

Χρυσωρός: gilthead, Chrysophrys aurata C. V.

5. MOLLUSCS

Κόγχη: mussels in general, including oysters.

Λαγωός (θαλάττιος): sea-hare, Aplysia depilans L.

Ὄστρεον: sometimes a generic term for mussels; more commonly a specific term for the common European oyster, Ostrea edulis L.; occasionally a term for other species of oyster, such as O. lamellosa Brocchi and O. cristata Lam.

Πίννη: pinna, especially Pinna nobilis L.; but also P. rudis L., P. rotundata L., and P. pectinata L.

Πολύπους: octopus, Octopus vulgaris Lam.

Πορφύρα: purplefish, Murex trunculus L., Μ. brandaris L., and Thais haemastoma Lam.

Σηπία: cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis L.

6. CRUSTACEA

Κάραβος: rock lobster, Palinurus vulgaris Latr.

Καρκίνος: crab, Decapoda brachyura Lam.

Πάγουρος: probably the common edible crab, Cancer pagurus L.

Πιννοτήρης: pinna-guard, Pinnoteres veterum L.

Σπογγοτήρης: sponge-guard, Typton spongicola Costa.

7. INSECTS AND SPIDERS

Ἀράχνης: spider (class Arachnoidea, order Araneida).

Μέλιττα: bee generically, but mostly domestic honeybee, Apis mellifera L.

Μύρμηξ: ant generically (family Formicidae).

Τέττιξ: cicada, esp. Cicada plebeia Scop, and C. orni L.

8. ECHINODERMS

Ἀστήρ: starfish generically, Asterias sp.

Ἐχῖνος (θαλάττιος): sea-urchin, especially Echinus esculentus Lam. and Strongylocentrotus lividus Brdt.

9. PORIFERA

Σπόγγος: sponge, chiefly Euspongia officinalis Bronn. and Hippospongia equina Schmidt.