Quaestiones Romanae

Why is it not allowed the priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) to anoint himself in the open air?[*](Cf. Aulus Gellius, x. 15.)

Is it because it used not to be proper or decent for sons to strip in their father’s sight, nor a son-in-law in the presence of his father-in-law, nor in ancient days did they bathe together?[*](Cf. Cicero, De Oratore, ii. 55 (224), with Wilkins’s note.) Now Jupiter is our father, and whatever is in the open air is in some way thought to be particularly in his sight.

Or, just as it is against divine ordinance to strip oneself in a shrine or a temple, so also did they scrupulously avoid the open air and the space beneath the

Or are some regulations prescribed for the priest alone, while others are prescribed for all by the law through the priest? Wherefore also, in my country, to wear a garland, to wear the hair long, not to have any iron on one’s person, and not to set foot within the boundaries of Phocis, are the special functions of an archon: but not to taste fruit before the autumnal equinox nor to prune a vine before the vernal equinox are prohibitions disclosed to practically all alike through the archon: for those are the proper seasons for each of these acts.

In the same way, then, it is apparently a special obligation of the Roman priest also not to use a horse nor to be absent from the city more than three nights[*](Livy, v. 52. 13, says not even one night. Cf. also Tacitus, Annals, iii. 58 and 71.) nor to lay aside the cap from which he derives the name of flamen.[*](Cf.Life of Numa, chap. vii. (64 c); Life of Marcellus, chap. v. (300 c); Varro, De Lingua Latina, v. 84; Festus, s.v. Flamen Dialis; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, ii. 64. 2. Varro’s etymology is Flamen quasi filamen; Plutarch must have pronouncedφλᾶμεν ph(i)lamen, with ph a true aspirate as in uphill, else there would be no justification for the alternative derivation from pileus (Numa, vii.).) But many other regulations are revealed to all through the priest, and one of them is the prohibition not to anoint oneself in the open air. For the Romans used to be very suspicious of rubbing down with oil, and even to-day they believe that nothing has been so much to blame for the enslavement and effeminacy of the Greeks as their gymnasia and wrestling - schools, which engender much listless idleness and waste of time in their cities, as well as paederasty and the ruin of the bodies of

Why did their ancient coinage have stamped on one side a double-faced likeness of Janus, on the other the stern or the prow of a ship?[*](Cf. Athenaeus, 692 e; Ovid, Fasti, i. 229 ff.; Pliny, Natural History, xxxiii. 3 (45); Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 7. 21-22.)

Is it, as many affirm, in honour of Saturn who crossed over to Italy in a ship?

Or, since this might be said of many, inasmuch as Janus, Evander, and Aeneas all landed in Italy after a voyage by sea, one might rather conjecture thus: some things are excellent for States, others are necessary; and of the excellent things good government is the chief, and of the necessary things facility of provision. Since, therefore, Janus established for them an ordered government by civilizing their life, and since the river, which was navigable and permitted transportation both from the sea and from the land, provided them with an abundance of necessities, the coinage came to have as its symbol the twofold form of the lawgiver, as has been stated,[*](269 a, supra.) because of the change he wrought, and the vessel as symbol of the river.

They also used another kind of coinage, stamped

Why do they use the temple of Saturn as the public treasury and also as a place of storage for records of contracts?[*](Cf. Life of Publicola, xii. (103 c).)

Is it because the opinion and tradition prevailed that when Saturn was king there was no greed or injustice among men, but good faith and justice?

Or is it because the god was the discoverer of crops and the pioneer in husbandry? For this is what his sickle signifies and not as Antimachus,[*](Kinkel, Epicorum Graec. Frag. p. 287, Antimachus, Frag. 35.) following Hesiod,[*](Theogony, 160 ff.; Cf. Apollonius Rhodius, iv. 984-986.) has written:

1. Here with sickle in hand was wrought the form of rough Cronus
2. Maiming his sire at his side, who is Uranus, offspring of Acmon.

Or is this a matter of ancient history, and was Valerius Publicola the first to make the temple of Saturn the treasury, when the kings had been overthrown, because he believed that the place was well-protected, in plain sight, and hard to attack secretly?

Why do the ambassadors to Rome, from whatever country they come, proceed to the temple of Saturn, and register with the prefects of the treasury?

Is it because Saturn was a foreigner, and consequently takes pleasure in foreigners, or is the solution of this question also to be found in history? For it seems that in early days the treasurers[*](Presumably the quaestores aerarii.) used to send gifts to the ambassadors, which were called lautia, and they cared for the ambassadors when they were sick, and buried them at public expense if they died: but now, owing to the great number of embassies that come, this expensive practice has been discontinued: yet there still remains the preliminary meeting with the prefects of the treasury in the guise of registration.

Why may not the priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) take an oath?[*](Cf. Livy, xxxi. 50; Aulus Gellius, x. 15.)

Is it because an oath is a kind of test to prove that men are free-born, and neither the body nor the soul of the priest must be subjected to any test?

Or is it because it is unreasonable to distrust in trivial affairs him who is entrusted with holy matters of the greatest importance?

Or is it because every oath concludes with a curse

Or is it because the danger of perjury is a public danger if an impious and perjured man leads in prayer and sacrifice on behalf of the State?

Why on the festival of the Veneralia do they pour out a great quantity of wine from the temple of Venus?[*](Cf. Ovid, Fasti, iv. 877 ff.: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, i. 65; Pliny, Natural History, xiv. 12 (88), where the authority cited is Varro. Plutarch speaks of the festival of Vinalia (April 23) as Veneralia perhaps because Venus (together with Jupiter) was the protecting deity of the vine.)

Is it true, as most authorities affirm, that Mezentius, general of the Etruscans, sent to Aeneas and offered peace on condition of his receiving the year’s vintage? But when Aeneas refused, Mezentius promised his Etruscans that when he had prevailed in battle, he would give them the wine. Aeneas learned of his promise and consecrated the wine to the gods, and after his victory he collected all the vintage and poured it out in front of the temple of Venus.

Or is this also symbolic, indicating that men should be sober and not drunken on festival days, since the gods take more pleasure in those who spill much strong drink than in those who imbibe it?

Why did the men of old keep the temple of Horta continually open?

Is it, as Antistius Labeo has stated, that since to

Or rather do they call her, as at present, Hora, with the first syllable lengthened, an attentive and very considerate goddess, who, since she was protective and thoughtful, they felt was never indifferent nor neglectful of human affairs?

Or is this too, like many other Latin words, a Greek word, and does it signify the supervising and guardian goddess? Hence her temple was continually open since she neither slumbers nor sleeps.

If, however, Labeo be right in pointing out that Hora is derived from parorman [*](Plutarch here (in hora, horman, (h)orator), as often, makes havoc of etymology and quantity.) (to urge on), consider whether we must not declare that orator is thus to be derived, since an orator is a counsellor or popular leader who stimulates, as it were, and incites: and it is not to be derived from imprecating or praying (orare), as some assert.

Why did Romulus build the temple of Vulcan outside the city?

Was it in consequence of Vulcan’s fabled jealousy of Mars because of Venus[*](Cf. Homer, Od. viii. 266-359.) that Romulus, the reputed son of Mars, did not give Vulcan a share in his home or his city?

Or is this a foolish explanation, and was the temple originally built as a secret place of assembly and council-chamber for himself and his colleague Tatius,

Or was it that since Rome, from the very beginning, has been in great danger from conflagrations, they decided to show honour to this god, but to place his temple outside of the city?[*](Cf. Vitruvius, i. 7. 1.)

Why is it that at the festival of the Consualia they place garlands on both the horses and the asses and allow them to rest?

Is it because they celebrate this festival in honour of Poseidon, god of horses,[*](Cf.Life of Romulus, chap. xiv. (25 d).) and the ass enjoys a share in the horse’s exemption?

Or is it that since navigation and transport by sea have been discovered, pack animals have come to enjoy a certain measure of ease and rest?

Why was it the custom for those canvassing for office to do so in the toga without the tunic, as Cato has recorded?[*]( Cf.Life of Coriolanus, chap. xiv. (219 f-220 a).)

Was it in order that they might not carry money in the folds of their tunic and give bribes?

Or was it rather because they used to judge candidates worthy of office, not by their family nor their wealth nor their repute, but by their wounds and scars? Accordingly that these might be visible to those that encountered them, they used to go down to their canvassing without tunics.

Or were they trying to commend themselves to popular favour by thus humiliating themselves by their scanty attire, even as they do by hand-shaking, personal appeals, and fawning behaviour?

Why did the priest of Jupiter (Flamen Dialis) resign his office if his wife died, as Ateius has recorded?[*](Cf. Aulus Gellius, x. 15.)

Is it because the man who has taken a wife and then lost her is more unfortunate than one who has never taken a wife? For the house of the married man is complete, but the house of him who has married and later lost his wife is not only incomplete, but also crippled.

Or is it because the wife assists her husband in the rites, so that many of them cannot be performed without the wife’s presence, and for a man who has lost his wife to marry again immediately is neither possible perhaps nor otherwise seemly? Wherefore it was formerly illegal for the flamen to divorce his wife: and it is still, as it seems, illegal, but in my day Domitian once permitted it on petition. The priests were present at that ceremony of divorce and performed many horrible, strange, and gloomy rites.[*](Cf.Cambridge Ancient History, vol. vii. p. 422.)

One might be less surprised at this resignation of the flamen if one should adduce also the fact that when one of the censors died, the other was obliged to resign his office[*](Cf. Livy, v. 31. 6, 7; vi. 27. 4, 5; ix. 34.); but when the censor Livius Drusus died, his colleague Aemilius Scaurus was unwilling to give up his office until certain tribunes ordered him to be led away to prison.

Why is a dog placed beside the Lares that men call by the special name of praestites, and why are the Lares themselves clad in dog-skins?[*](Cf. Ovid, Fasti, v. 129 ff.)

Is it because those that stand before are termed

Or is the truth rather, as some Romans affirm, that, just as the philosophic school of Chrysippus[*](Cf.Moralia, 361 b, 419 a, 1051 c.) think that evil spirits stalk about whom the gods use as executioners and avengers upon unholy and unjust men, even so the Lares are spirits of punishment like the Furies and supervisors of mens lives and houses? Wherefore they are clothed in the skins of dogs and have a dog as their attendant, in the belief that they are skilful in tracking down and following up evil-doers.

Why do they sacrifice a bitch to the goddess called Geneta Mana[*](Cf. Pliny, Natural History, xxix. 4 (58).) and pray that none of the household shall become good?

Is it because Geneta is a spirit concerned with the generation and birth of beings that perish? Her name means some such thing as flux and birth or flowing birth. [*](An attempt to derive the name from genitus (-a, -um) and manare.) Accordingly, just as the Greeks sacrifice a bitch to Hecatê,[*](Cf. 280 c, infra.) even so do the Romans offer the same sacrifice to Geneta on behalf of the members of their household. But Socrates[*](Müller, Frag. Hist. Graec. iv. p. 498.) says that the Argives sacrifice a bitch to Eilioneia by reason of the ease with which the bitch brings forth its young. But does the import of the prayer, that none of them shall become good, refer not to the human members of a household, but to the dogs? For dogs should be savage and terrifying.

Or, because of the fact that the dead are gracefully called the good, are they in veiled language asking in their prayer that none of their household may die? One should not be surprised at this: Aristotle,[*](Frag. 592 (ed. V. Rose); Cf.Moralia, 292 b, infra.) in fact, says that there is written in the treaty of the Arcadians with the Spartans: No one shall be made good[*](Cf.χρηστὲ χαῖρ on Greek tombstones.) for rendering aid to the Spartan party in Tegea: that is, no one shall be put to death.

Why do they even now, at the celebration of the Capitoline games, proclaim Sardians for sale!,[*](So apparently Plutarch; but the Latin Sardi venales can mean nothing but Sardinians for sale. Plutarch, or his authority, has confused Sardi with Sardiani (Sardians).) and why is an old man led forth in derision, wearing around his neck a child’s amulet which they call a bulla [*](Cf.Life of Romulus, xxv. (33 e).)?

Is it because the Etruscans called Veians fought against Romulus for a long time, and he took this city last of all[*](This is quite contrary to the traditional account (Cf. for example, Livy, vi. 21-23), according to which Veii was not captured until 396 b.c.) and sold at auction many captives together with their king, taunting him for his stupidity and folly? But since the Etruscans were originally Lydians, and Sardis was the capital city of the Lydians, they offered the Veians for sale under this name: and even to this day they preserve the custom in sport.

Why do they call the meat-markets macella and macellae?

Is this word corrupted from mageiroi (cooks) and has it prevailed, as many others have, by force of habit? For c and g have a close relationship in

Or must this problem also be solved by history? For the story goes that there once lived in Rome a violent man, a robber, Macellus by name, who despoiled many people and was with great difficulty caught and punished: from his wealth the public meat-market was built, and it acquired its name from him.

Why is it that on the Ides of January the flute-players are allowed to walk about the city wearing the raiment of women[*](Cf. Livy, ix. 30; Ovid, Fasti, vi. 653 ff.; Valerius Maximus, ii. 5. 4; see also Classical Weekly, 1921, p. 51.)?

Is it for the reason commonly alleged? They used to enjoy, as it seems, great honours, which King Numa had given them by reason of his piety towards the gods. Because they were later deprived of these honours by the decemviri, who were invested with consular power,[*](Consulari potestate.) they withdrew from the city. There was, accordingly, inquiry made for them, and a certain superstitious fear seized upon the priests when they sacrificed without flutes. But when the flute-players would not hearken to those sent to summon them to return, but remained in Tibur, a freedman secretly promised the officials to bring them back. On the pretext of having sacrificed to the gods, he prepared a sumptuous banquet and invited the flute-players. Women were present, as well as wine, and a party lasting all the night was being celebrated with merriment and dancing, when

Why are the matrons supposed to have founded the temple of Carmenta originally, and why do they reverence it now above all others?

There is a certain tale repeated that the women were prevented by the senate from using horse-drawn vehicles[*](Cf. Livy, v. 25. 9, and xxxiv. 1 and 8.); they therefore made an agreement with one another not to conceive nor to bear children, and they kept their husbands at a distance, until the husbands changed their minds and made the concession to them. When children were born to them, they, as mothers of a fair and numerous progeny, founded the temple of Carmenta.

Some assert that Carmenta was the mother of Evander and that she came to Italy: that her name was Themis, or, as others say, Nicostratê; and that because she chanted oracles in verse, she was named Carmenta by the Latins, for they call verses carmina.

But others think that Carmenta is a Fate, and that this is the reason why the matrons sacrifice to her. The true meaning of the name is deprived of sense, [*](That is, carens mente.) by reason of her divine transports. Wherefore Carmenta was not so named from carmina, but rather carmina from her, because, in her divine frenzy, she chanted oracles in verse and metre.[*](Cf.Life of Romulus, xxi. (31 a); Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, i. 31; Strabo, v. 33. p. 230; Ovid, Fasti, i. 619 ff.)

Why do the women that sacrifice to Rumina pour milk over the offerings, but make no oblation of wine in the ceremony?

Is it because the Latins call the teat ruma, and assert that Ruminalis[*](Cf. 320 d, infra, and Life of Romulus, iv. (19 d); Ovid, Fasti, ii. 411 ff.) acquired its name inasmuch as the she-wolf offered its teat to Romulus? Therefore, as we call wet-nurses thelonai from thele (teat), even so Rumina is she that gives suck, the nurse and nurturer of children: she does not, therefore, welcome pure wine, since it is harmful for babes.

Why did they use to address some of the senators as Conscript Fathers, others merely as Fathers?[*](Cf.Life of Romulus, xiii. (25 a).)

Is it because they used to call those senators originally assigned to that body by Romulus fathers and patricians, that is to say well-born, since they could point out their fathers,[*](Cf. Livy, x. 8. 10.) while they called those who were later enrolled from the commoners conscript fathers?

Why did Hercules and the Muses have an altar in common?

Is it because Hercules taught Evander’s people the use of letters, as Juba[*](Müller, Frag. Hist. Graec. iii. p. 470.) has recorded? And this action was held to be noble on the part of men who taught their friends and relatives. It was a long time before they began to teach for pay, and the first to open an elementary school was Spurius Carvilius,[*](Cf. 277 d, supra.) a freedman of the Carvilius[*](Cf. the note on 267 c, supra.) who was the first to divorce his wife.