Diocletian ruled with HerculiusThis name was conferred on Maximianus by Diocletian. Maximianus for twenty years.

Constantius,Constantius Chlorus, father of Constantine, emperor 305–306. grandson of the brother of that best of emperors Claudius,Claudius II.; his mother was Claudia, daughter of Crispus, brother of Claudius II; cf. Eutr. ix. 22; Hieron. a. Abr. 2307. was first one of the emperor’s bodyguard, then a tribune, and later, governor of Dalmatia.Under the emperor Carus, who wished to make him Caesar in place of his own brother Carinus. With Galerius he was appointed Caesar by DiocletianIn 292. ; for he put away his former wife Helena and married Theodora, daughter of Maximianus, by whom he afterwards had six children,Three sons: Dalmatius, Julius Constantius, and Hannibalianus; and three daughters: Constantia, Anastasia, and Eutropia. brothers of Constantine. But by his former wife Helena he already had a son Constantine, who was later the mightiest of emperors.

This Constantine, then, born of Helena, a mother of very common origin, and brought up in the town of Naissus,In Moesia, on the river Margus; cf. xxi. 10, 5; modern Nis, in Yugoslavia. which he afterwards splendidly adorned, had but slight training in letters.minus = minus iusto, Tillemont iv, p. 132 (Wagner). He was held as a hostage by Diocletian and Galerius,To secure his father’s loyalty. and did valiant service under those emperors in Asia. After the abdication of Diocletian and Herculius,Maximianus (Herculius), in 305. ConstantiusConstantius Chlorus. asked Galerius to return his son; but Galerius first exposed him to many dangers.

For when Constantine, then a young man, was serving in the cavalry against the Sarmatians, he seized by the hair and carried off a fierce savage, and threw him at the feet of the emperor Galerius. Then sent by Galerius through a swamp, he entered it on his horse and made a way for the rest to the Sarmatians, of whom he slew many and won the victory for Galerius.

Then at last Galerius sent him back to his father. But in order to avoid meeting SeverusHe had been appointed Caesar by Galerius; see 3, 5, below. as he passed through Italy, Constantine crossed the Alps with the greatest haste, ordering the post-horses to be killedAt each station, so that his pursuers could not use them; cf. Zos. ii. 8; Ps.-Aur. Vict., , 40, 2, cum ad frustrandos insequentes publica iumenta quaqua iter egerat interficeret; and for another meaning, Amm. xv. 1, 2. as he went on; and he came up with his father Constantius at Bononia,Boulogne, cf. Amm. xx. 1, 3. which the Gauls formerly called Gesoriacum. But his father Constantius, after winning a victory over the Picts, died at York, and Constantine was unanimously hailed as Caesar by all the troops.

In the meantime, two other Caesars had been appointed,By Galerius. Severus and Maximinus; to Maximinus was given the rule of the Orient; Galerius retained Illyricum for himself, as well as the Thracian provinces and Bithynia; Severus received Italy and whatever Herculius had formerly governed.He had governed Italy and Africa.

But after Constantius died in Britain, and his son Constantine succeeded him, Maxentius, the son of Herculius, was suddenly hailed as emperor by the praetorian soldiers in the city of Rome. By order of Galerius, Severus took the field against Maxentius, but he was suddenly deserted by all his followers and fled to Ravenna. Thereupon Galerius, with a great army, came against Rome, threatening the destruction of the city, and encamped at InteramnaIn Southern Umbria on the river Nar, just below its junction with the Velinus; modern Terni. near the Tiber.

Then he sent Licinius and Probus to the city as envoys, asking that the son-in-law, that is Maxentius, should attain his desires from the father-in-law, that is Galerius, at the price of requests rather than of arms. Galerius’ proposal was scorned, and having learned that through Maxentius’ promises many of his own men had been led to desert his cause, he was disturbed and turned back; and in order to furnish his men with whatever booty he could, he gave orders that the Flaminian Road should be plundered.Text and meaning are uncertain. Apparently he went along the Flaminian Road; cf. Lact., 27, 5, dedit militibus potestatem ut diriperent omnia vel corrumperent, ut si quis insequi vellet, utensilia non haberet.

MaximianusIlle seems to refer to Maximianus, who wished to resume his imperial power; if so, something is missing from the text. took refuge with Constantine. Then Galerius made Licinius a CaesarOther writers imply that he was made an Augustus at once. in Illyricum, and after that, leaving him in Pannonia, returned himself to Serdica, where he was attacked by a violent disease and wasted away so completely, that he died with the inner parts of his body exposed and in a state of corruptionCf. Oros. vii. 28, 12, put rescente introrsum pectore et visceribus dissolutis —a punishment for a most unjust persecution,Of the Christians; cf. Lact., 33; Eusebius, viii. 16, 3 ff. which recoiled as a well-merited penalty upon the author of the iniquitous order. He ruled for nineteen years.

Severus Caesar was low both in character and in origin, given to drink, and hence a friend to Galerius. Accordingly Galerius made Caesars of him and Maximinus, without Constantine having knowledge of any such step. To this Severus were assigned some cities of Pannonia, Italy, and Africa. Through this chance Maxentius became emperor; for Severus was deserted by his men and fled to Ravenna.

Summoned to support his son Maxentius, Herculius came to Ravenna, deceived Severus by a false oath, gave him into custody, and took him to Rome in the condition of a captive; there he had him kept under guard in a villa belonging to the state, situated thirty miles from Rome on the Appian Road.According to Zos. ii. 10, and Pseud.-Aur. Vict., 40, 3, it was at Tres Tabernae. When Galerius later went to Italy, Severus was executed; then his body was taken to a place eight miles from the city, and laid in the tomb of Gallienus.

Now Galerius was such a tipplerPseud.-Vict. 40, 19, makes this statement regarding Maxentius. that when he was drunk he gave orders such as ought not to be obeyed; and so, at the advice of his prefect, he directed that no one should execute any commands which he issued after luncheon.

Meanwhile Constantine, after defeating the tyrant’sMaxentius, called tyrant because his sovereignty was not officially recognised. generals at Verona, went on to Rome. When he had reached the city, Maxentius came out and chose a plainSaxa Rubra, near the Mulvian Bridge. above the Tiber as the place to do battle. There the usurper was defeated, and when all his men were put to flight, he was prevented from escaping by the crowd of fugitives, thrown from his horse into the river, and drowned. On the following day his body was recovered from the Tiber, and the head was cut off and taken to Rome. When his mother was questioned about his parentage, she admitted that he was the son of a Syrian. He ruled for six years.The number is lacking in the text, but is known from the Panegyrics of Constantine and other sources. It was from 306–312.

Now Licinius was a native of New Dacia, and was of somewhat common origin. He was made emperorI.e., Augustus; see Introd. to Vol. I, p. xxv. He seems never to have been a Caesar. by Galerius, in order that he might take the field against Maxentius. But when Maxentius was overthrown and Constantine had recovered Italy, he made Licinius his colleague on condition that he should marry Constantine’s sister Constantia at Mediolanum. After the celebration of the wedding Constantine went to Gaul, and Licinius returned to Illyricum.

Some time after that Constantine sent ConstantiusHis son, the future emperor, Constantius II. to Licinius, to persuade him to confer the rank of Caesar on Bassianus, who was married to a second sister of Constantine (named Anastasia), to the end that, after the manner of Maximianus, Bassianus might hold Italy and thus stand as a buffer between Constantine and Licinius.

But Licinius thwarted such an arrangement, and influenced by Bassianus’ brother Senicio, who was loyal to Licinius, Bassianus took up arms against Constantine. But he was arrested in the act of accomplishing his purpose, and by order of Constantine was condemned and executed. When the punishment of Senicio was demanded as the instigator of the plot and Licinius refused, the harmony between the two emperors came to an end; an additional reason for the break was, that Licinius had overthrown the busts and statues of Constantine at Emona.Modern Laibach in Carinthia. Then the two emperors declared open war.

Their armies were led to the plain of Cibalae.Cf. Amm. xxx. 7, 2. Licinius had 35,000 infantry and cavalry; Constantine commanded 20,000. After an indecisive contest, in which 20,000 of Licinius’ foot soldiers and a part of his mail-clad horsemen were slain, he himself with a great part of his other cavalry made his escape under cover of night to Sirmium.