Later, when Darius, and after him Xerxes, changed the use of the elementsOf water, when he bridged the Hellespont; of land, when he cut a canal through the Athos promontory. and attacked Greece, almost all their forces were destroyed by land and sea, and they themselves barely found a safe return; not to mention the wars of Alexander and the passing by his will and testament of the whole nation to the jurisdiction of a single successor.There is no mention of this will in Curtius, Arrian, or Diodorus Siculus.

After this was done and a long time had passed, during which the Roman commonwealth was governed by consuls and later brought under the sway of the Caesars, these nations carried on wars with us from time to time, and sometimes the contest was equal, at other times they were conquered, and occasionally they came off victorious.

I shall now describe the lie of the land—so far as my purpose allows—briefly and succinctly. These regions extend to a wide area in length and breadth,For its extent under Cyrus, see Xen., viii. 7, 7; cf. i. 1, 4: under Darius Hystaspes, Hdt. iii. 88. and run all along the Persian Gulf, which has many islands and peoples all round. The entrance to this sea (they say) is so narrow that from Harmoz, the promontory of Carmania, the other headland opposite it, which the natives call Maces, may be seen without difficulty.

After one has passed through this narrow strait, a wide expanse of sea opens, which is favourable to navigation as far as the city of Teredon,In Babylonia. where after many losses the Euphrates mingles with the deep.It unites with the Tigris before flowing into the sea. The losses are diminution of its waters, and in the speed of their flow, because of alluvial deposits. The entire gulf is bounded by a shore of 20,000 stadia, which is rounded as if turned on a lathe. All along the coast is a throng of cities and villages, and many ships sail to and fro.

After passing the strait which has been mentioned, one comes to the bay of Carmania facing the east. Then, a long distance to the south, the bay of Canthicus opens, and not far off is another, called Chalites, facing the setting sun. Next, after one has skirted many islands, few of which are well known, those bays unite with the Indian ocean, which is first of all to receive the glowing sun when it rises, and is itself also exceedingly warm.

And as the pens of geographers have drawn it, the whole circuit just described has this form. In the northern direction, to the Caspian GatesA pass in Mt. Taurus, between Parthia and Media. it borders on the Cadusii, on many tribes of the Scythians, and on the Arimaspse, wild, one-eyed men. On the west it touches Armenia, Niphates,A mountain of Armenia. the Asiatic Albani, the Red Sea,The Red Sea (Persian Gulf) is south (or south-west) of the Persian empire; cf. Pliny, vi. 112, a meridie, and Mesopotamia is west. and the Scenitic Arabs, whom men of later times called the Saracens.Cf. xiv. 4, xxii. 15, 2. Under the southern heaven it looks down on Mesopotamia.Cf. xiv. 4, xxii. 15, 2. Opposite the eastern front it extends to the Ganges river, which cuts through India and empties into the southern ocean.

Now there are in all Persia these greater provinces, ruled by vitaxae, or commanders of cavalry, by kings, and by satraps-for to enumerate the great number of smaller districts would be difficult and superfluous-namely, Assyria, Susiana, Media, Persis, Parthia, Greater Carmania, Hyrcania, Margiana, the Bactriani, the Sogdiani, the Sacae, Scythia at the foot of Imaus,The Himalayas. and beyond the same mountain, Serica, Aria, the Paropanisadae, Drangiana, Arachosia, and Gedrosia.

Nearest to us of all the provinces is Assyria, famous for its large population, its size, and the abundance and great variety of its products. This province once spread over great and prosperous peoples and districts,It included Assyria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia. then it was combined under a single name, and to-day the whole region is called Assyria. There, besides a great abundance of berries and common fruits, bitumen is found near the lake called Sosingites, in whose bed the Tigris is swallowed up, and then, after flowing under ground, and traversing a long distance,Justin. xlii. 3, 9, says it flows under ground for 25,000 stadia. appears again.