And I, too, Hermogenes.
But do not, my friend, demand too much precision, lest you
enfeeble me of my sight.Hom. Il. 6.265 For now that τέχνη (art) is disposed of, I am nearing the loftiest height of my subject, when once we have investigated μηχανή(contrivance). For I think μηχανή signifies ἄνειν ἐπὶ πολύ (much accomplishment); for μῆκος (length) has about the same meaning as τὸ πολύ (much), and the name μηχανή is composed of these two, μῆκος and ἄνειν. But, as I was just saying, we must go on to the loftiest height of our subject; we must search for the meaning of the words ἀρετή (virtue) and κακία (wickedness). Now one of them I cannot yet see;
but the other seems to be quite clear, since it agrees with everything we have said before. For inasmuch as all things are in motion, everything that moves badly (κακῶς ἰόν) would be evil (κακία); and when this evil motion in relation to its environment exists in the soul, it receives the general name κακία (evil) in the special sense of wickedness. But the nature of evil motion (κακῶς ἰέναι) is made clear, I think, also in the word δειλία (cowardice), which we have not yet discussed. We passed it by,
when we ought to have examined it after ἀνδρεία (courage); and I fancy we passed over a good many other words. Now the meaning of δειλία is a strong bond of the soul; for λίαν (excessively) is, in a way, expressive of strength; so δειλία would be the excessive or greatest bond (δεσμός, δεῖν) of the soul; and so, too, ἀπορία (perplexity) is an evil, as is everything, apparently, which hinders motion and progress (πορεύεσθαι). This, then, seems to be the meaning of evil motion (κακῶς ἰέναι), that advance is halting and impeded; and the soul that is infected by it becomes filled with wickedness (κακία). If these are the reasons for the name of wickedness, virtue (ἀρετή) would be the opposite of this; it would signify first ease of motion,
and secondly that the flow of the good soul is always unimpeded, and therefore it has received this name, which designates that which always flows (ἀεὶ ῥέον) without let or hindrance. It is properly called ἀειρειτή, or perhaps also αἱρετή, indicating that this condition is especially to be chosen; but it has been compressed and is pronounced ἀρετή. Perhaps you will say this is another invention of mine; but I say if what I said just now about κακία is right,
this about the name of ἀρετή is right too.
But what is the meaning of the word κακόν which you used in many of your derivations?
By Zeus, I think it is a strange word and hard to understand; so I apply to it that contrivance of mine.
What contrivance?
The claim of foreign origin, which I advance in this case as in those others.
Well, probably you are right. But, if you please, let us drop these words and try to discover the reasons for the words καλόν (beautiful, noble) and αἰσχρόν (base).
I think the meaning of αἰσχρόν is clear,
and this also agrees with what has been said before. For the giver of names appears to me throughout to denounce that which hinders and restrains things from flowing, and in this instance he gave to that which always restrains the flow (ἀεὶ ἴσχει τὸν ῥοῦν) this name ἀεισχοροῦν, which is now compressed and pronounced αἰσχρόν.
What about καλόν?
That is harder to understand, and yet it expresses its meaning: it has been altered merely in accent and in the length of the O.
How is that?
I think this word denotes intellect.
What do you mean?
Why, what do you think is the cause why anything is called by a name? Is it not the power which gave the name?
Why, certainly.
And is not that power the intellect either of gods or of men or both?
Yes.
Are not that which called things by name and that which calls them by name (τὸ καλοῦν) the same thing, namely intellect?
Yes, clearly.
And are not all works which are done by mind and intelligence worthy of praise, and those that are not done by them worthy of blame?
Certainly.
Does not the medical power perform medical works and the power of carpentry works of carpentry? Do you agree to that?
I agree.
And the beautiful performs beautiful works?
It must do so.
And the beautiful is, we say, intellect?
Certainly.
Then this name, the beautiful, is rightly given to mind, since it accomplishes the works which we call beautiful and in which we delight.
Evidently.
What further words of this sort are left for us?
Those that are related to the good and the beautiful,
such as συμφέροντα (advantageous), λυσιτελοῦντα (profitable), ὠφέλιμα (useful), κερδαλέα (gainful), and their opposites.
You might by this time be able to find the meaning of συμφέροντα by yourself in the light of the previous explanations, for it appears to be own brother to ἐπιστήμη. It means nothing else but the motion (φορά) of the soul in company with the world, and naturally things which are done by such a power are called συμφέροντα and σύμφορα because they are carried round with (συμπεριφέρεσθαι) the world. But κερδαλέον is from κέρδος (gain).
If you restore nu in the word κέρδος in place of the delta, the meaning is plain; it signifies good, but in another way. Because it passes through and is mingled (κεράννυται) with all things, he who named it gave it this name which indicates that function; but he inserted a delta instead of nu and said κέρδος.
And what is λυσιτελοῦν?
I do not think, Hermogenes, the name-giver gives the meaning to λυσιτελοῦν which it has in the language of tradesfolk, when profit sets free (ἀπολύει) the sum invested,
but he means that because it is the swiftest thing in the world it does not allow things to remain at rest and does not allow the motion to come to any end (τέλος) of movement or to stop or pause, but always, if any end of the motion is attempted, it sets it free, making it unceasing and immortal. It is in this sense, I think, that the good is dubbed λυσιτελοῦν, for it frees (λύει) the end (τέλος) of the motion. But the word ὠφέλιμον is a foreign one, which Homer often uses in the verbal form ὀφέλλειν. This is a synonym of increase and create.
What shall be our explanations of the opposites of these?
Those of them that are mere negatives, need, I think, no discussion.
Which are those?
Disadvantageous, useless, unprofitable, and ungainful.
True.
But βλαβερόν (harmful) and ζημιῶδες (hurtful) do need it.
Yes.
And βλαβερόν means that which harms (βλάπτον) the flow (ῥοῦν);
but βλάπτον means wishing to fasten (ἅπτειν), and ἅπτειν is the same thing as δεῖν (bind), which the name-giver constantly finds fault with. Now τὸ βουλόμενον ἅπτειν ῥοῦν (that which wishes to fasten the flow) would most correctly be called βουλαπτεροῦν, but is called βλαβερόν merely, as I think, to make it prettier.
Elaborate names these are, Socrates, that result from your method. Just now,
when you pronounced βουλαπτεροῦν, you looked as if you had made up your mouth to whistle the flute-prelude of the hymn to Athena.
Not I, Hermogenes, am responsible, but those who gave the name.
True. Well, what is the origin of ζημιῶδες?
What can the origin of ζημιῶδες be? See, Hermogenes, how true my words are when I say that by adding and taking away letters people alter the sense of words so that even by very slight changes they sometimes make them mean the opposite of what they meant before; as, for instance,
in the case of the word δέον (obligation, right), for that just occurred to me and I was reminded of it by what I was going to say to you, that this fine modern language of ours has turned δέον and also ζημιῶδες round, so that each has the opposite of its original meaning, whereas the ancient language shows clearly the real sense of both words.
What do you mean?
I will tell you. You know that our ancestors made good use of the sounds of iota and delta,
and that is especially true of the women, who are most addicted to preserving old forms of speech. But nowadays people change iota to eta or epsilon, and delta to zeta, thinking they have a grander sound.
How is that?
For instance, in the earliest times they called day ἱμέρα, others said ἑμέρα, and now they say ἡμέρα.
That is true.
Only the ancient word discloses the intention of the name-giver, don’t you know? For day comes out of darkness to men; they welcome it and long (ἱμείρουσι) for it,
and so they called it ἱμέρα.
That is clear.
But now ἡμέρα is masquerading so that you could not guess its meaning. Why, some people think day is called ἡμέρα because it makes things gentle (ἥμερα).
I believe they do.
And you know the ancients called ζυγόν (yoke) δυογόν.
Certainly.
And ζυγόν conveys no clear meaning,
but the name δυογόν is quite properly given to that which binds two together for the purpose of draught; now, however, we say ζυγόν. There are a great many other such instances.
Yes, that is plain.
Similarly the word δέον (obligation) at first, when spoken in this way, denotes the opposite of all words connected with the good; for although it is a form of good, δέον seems to be a bond (δεσμός) and hindrance of motion, own brother, as it were, toβλαβερόν.