De Medicina

14 There are also around the navel many lesions about which, owing to their rarity, there is little agreement among authorities. But it is probable that each has passed over what was unknown to himself; while no one has depicted what he had not seen. Common to all cases is an ugly prominence of the umbilicus, and the causes are sought for. Meges gave three; rupture into it of the intestine, of the omentum, or of humour. Sostratus said nothing about the omentum; in addition to the other two he said that at times there was increase of flesh in that part, sometimes sound, sometimes cancerous. Gorgias himself also omitted mention of the

omentum; but he gave the same number of causes, three, and said that occasionally wind also ruptured into it. Heron having given all these four causes, made mention of both the omentum and of that form which was caused simultaneously by the omentum and intestine. But which of these causes it is, may be recognized by the following indications. When intestine has prolapsed the swelling is neither hard nor soft; it is reduced by anything cold; and it increases not only under heat of all kinds but also when the breath is held. At intervals it rumbles, and if the patient lies down on his back the swelling subsides, as the intestine has slipped back. But when it is the omentum, whilst other signs are similar, the swelling is softer, broad at its base, thinned out towards its apex; if any one grasps it, it slips away. When both intestine and omentum have prolapsed, the signs are mingled, and the softness is intermediate between the two; but the flesh is harder, and even when the patient lies on his back there is always swelling, and it does not yield to pressure, to which the preceding forms yield readily. If it is malignant the signs are the same as I have stated for cancer. Humour fluctuates when pressed upon; wind, on the other hand yields under pressure, but returns at once, also the swelling retains the same shape when the patient lies down on his back. Of these varieties, the disorder due to wind does not admit of treatment; also cancerous flesh is dangerous to treat, so should be left alone. Sound flesh ought to be cut away and the wound dressed with lint. Some let out humour, either by perforating with a needle, or by cutting into the apex of the tumour, and then similarly dressing the wound with lint. As to the rest of the treatment opinions vary. Of course the patient must be laid on his back, in order that the swelling, whether it be intestine or omentum, may slip back into the abdomen. But when the navel sac was then empty, some caught it between two little rods, and fastened the ends of the rods tightly together, so that it mortified there; some passed a needle doubly threaded through the base of the sac, then knotted the two ends of each thread on opposite sides, as is done also in staphyloma of the eye; from in this way that part beyond the ligatures mortifies. Some, in addition, before tying the ends also cut into the protrusion along a marked line and excised it: in order that they might more easily insert a finger and push back whatever had ruptured into the sac; then at length they tied the ligatures. But it is quite enough to order the patient to hold his breath so that the tumour shows itself at its largest; then to mark its base with ink; next with the patient on his back, to compress the tumour with the fingers, so that whatever has not slipped back of itself is forced back by the hand. After this the umbilicus is drawn forwards, and tightly constricted with flaxen thread along the marks of the ink; next the part beyond the ligature is either burnt with caustics or with the cautery, until it mortifies, after which the wound is dressed like other burns. This method answers best, not only when it is intestine or omentum or both, but even when it is humour. But first precautions must be taken against any danger from the ligature. For neither an infant nor a robust adult nor an old man is suited to this treatment, but a child between seven and fourteen years of age. Secondly a suitable body for it is one that is sound, but where there is general ill-health, or pustules or eruptions, and such like, it is not suitable. The smaller tumours also are readily curable, but there is danger in the treatment of those which are excessively large. Moreover the autumn and winter seasons should be avoided, the spring is the best season, early summer is not unfavourable. The patient should also fast on the day before the operation, and that is not enough, but the bowels also are to be moved by a clyster, in order that all that has extruded may more readily return into the abdomen.

15 I have said elsewhere that in those who are dropsical the water ought to be let out: here I must describe how this should be done. Now some make the perforation about four fingers breadth below the navel, and to the left; some make it by perforating the navel itself; some first burn through the skin and then cut into the abdominal cavity, because flesh which has been divided by cautery heals less quickly. Now when entering the knife great care should be taken that no blood vessel is cut into. The knife must be such that its point should be about the third of a finger's breadth, and it should be so entered as to penetrate the membrane separating the flesh from the interior; then a lead or bronze tube should be inserted, either with lips curved back at its outer end, or with a collar round the middle so that the whole of it cannot slip inside. The part of the tube within the abdominal cavity should be a little longer than the part outside, in order that it may project inwards beyond the deeper membrane. Through this tube

the humour is let out; and when the greater part has escaped, the tube is to be closed by a lint plug, and left in the wound if it was not burnt with a cautery; then on each of the following days about one hemina is let out, until there appears no trace of fluid. Some, however, even when the skin has not been cauterized, take out the tube forthwith, and then bandage on the wound a squeezed-out sponge; then on the next day they pass in a tube again (which the recent wound admits if it is slightly stretched) in order that any remaining fluid may be let out. They are satisfied when this has been done twice in this manner.

16 Sometimes the abdomen is penetrated by a stab of some sort, and it follows that intestines roll out. When this happens we must first examine whether they are uninjured, and then whether their proper colour persists. If the smaller intestine has been penetrated, no good can be done, as I have already said. The larger intestine can be sutured, not with any certain assurance, but because a doubtful hope is preferable to certain despair; for occasionally it heals up. Then if either intestine is livid or pallid or black, in which case there is necessarily no sensation, all medical aid is vain. But if intestines have still their proper colour, aid should be given with all speed, for they undergo change from moment to moment when exposed to the external air, to which they are unaccustomed. The patient is to be laid on his back with his hips raised; and if the wound is too narrow for the intestines to be easily replaced, it is to be cut until sufficiently wide. If the intestines have already become too dry, they are to be bathed with water

to which a small quantity of oil has been added. Next the assistant should gently separate the margins of the wound by means of his hands, or even by two hooks inserted into the inner membrane: the surgeon always returns first the intestines which have prolapsed the later, in such a way as to preserve the order of the several coils. When all have been returned, the patient is to be shaken gently: so that of their own accord the various coils are brought into their proper places and settle there. This done, the omentum too must be examined, and any part that is black dead is to be cut away with shears; what is sound is returned gently into place in front of the intestines. Now stitching of the surface skin only or of the inner membrane only is not enough, but both must be stitched. And there must be two rows of stitches, set closer together than in other places, partly because they can be broken here more easily by the abdominal movement, partly because that part of the body is not specially liable to severe inflammations. Therefore two needles are to be threaded and one is to be held in each hand; and the stitches are to be inserted, first through the inner membrane, so that the surgeon's left hand pushes the needle from within outwards through the right margin of the wound, and his right hand through the left margin, beginning from one end of the wound. The result is that it is the blunt end of the needle which is always being pushed away from the intestines. When each margin has been once traversed, the hands interchange needles, so that into the right hand comes the needles which was in the left, and into the left the needle which was in the right; and again, after the same method they are to be passed through the margins; and when for the third and fourth time, the needles have changed hands the wound is to be closed. Afterwards the same thread and the same needles are now transferred to the skin, and stitches are to be inserted by a like method into this as well, always directing the needles from within outwards, and with the same change, between the hands. It is too obvious to need constantly repeating that agglutinants are then to be put on with the addition either of a sponge or of greasy wool, squeezed out of vinegar. Over this application the abdomen should be lightly bandaged.

17 Sometimes, however, whether from some blow, or from holding the breath too long, or from carrying a heavy weight, the inner membrane of the abdomen is ruptured, whilst the skin over it is entire. This often occurs too in the case of women from childbearing, and it particularly takes place in the iliac regions. But it follows since the overlying flesh is soft, that it does not hold the intestines properly in place and that the skin is stretched by them and forms an ugly swelling. And this too is treated differently by different surgeons. For some pass two threads through the base by means of a needle, and then tie on each side, as has been described for the navel and for staphyloma, in order that what is beyond the ligature may mortify; some excise the middle of the swelling by a myrtle-leaf shaped incision, which as I said is the method which should always be adopted, and then they unite the edges by stitching. But the best way is with the patient on the back, to try with the hand in which part the swelling is most yielding, for of necessity it is at

that part that the inner membrane is ruptured, and where it is entire the swelling is more resistant. Where the rupture is seen to be, two linear incisions are made with a scalpel, so that when what lies between has been excised, the inner membrane has a wound freshly made on each side, because stitching will not unite a lesion of long standing. When on exposure any part of the membrane presents not a recent but an old rupture, a thin strip is to be pared away, which only just makes the margins raw. All the directions for stitching and further treatment have been given above.

Besides the above there are sometimes varicose veins upon the abdominal wall, and because there is no other treatment for these than what is usual for the legs since I shall treat of that part later, I will defer this too till then.

18 Now I come to those lesions which are apt to arise in the genital parts around the testicles; and to explain them more easily, the nature of the said region must briefly be described first. The testicles then are somewhat like marrow, for they do not bleed and they lack all feeling; but the coverings by which they are enclosed give pain both when injured and inflamed. Now the testicles hang from the groins, each by a cord which the Greeks call the cremaster with each of which descend a pair of veins and a pair of arteries. And these are ensheathed in a tunic, thin, fibrous, bloodless, white, which is called by the Greeks elytroides. Outside this is stronger tunic, which at its lowest part is

closely adherent to the inner one; the Greeks call it dartos. Further, many fine membranes hold together the veins, and the arteries, and the cords aforesaid, and also in between the two tunics there are some fine and very small membranes, descending from the parts above. Thus far the coverings and supports belong to each testicle separately; next common to both and to all within is the pouch which is now visible to us; the Greeks call it oscheon, we the scrotum; and at its lowest part this is slightly connected with the middle coverings, higher up it is only surrounded by them. Now, underneath the scrotal covering many lesions are apt to occur, sometimes after the rupture of the coverings which, as I have said, begin from the groins, sometimes when they are uninjured. Since at times either owing to disease there is first inflammation, then afterwards a rupture from the weight; or after some blow there, there is a direct rupture of the covering which ought to separate the intestines from the parts below; then either omentum, or it may be intestine, rolls down by its own weight; this having found a way gradually from the groins into the parts below as well, there separates by its pressure the coverings which are fibrous and therefore give way. The Greeks call the condition enterocele and epiplocele, with us the ugly but usual name for it is hernia.

Now if omentum has come down, the tumour in the scrotum never disappears, either if the patient fasts, or if his body is turned from side to side, or lies in some special position; again, if the breath is held, it does not increase to any extent; to the touch it seems uneven and soft and slippery. But if intestine has also come down this tumour is with-

out inflammation, sometimes it diminishes, sometimes increases, and it is generally painless and soft. When the patient is quiescent or lying down, it disappears, at times altogether; sometimes it becomes divided so that very small remnants stay in the scrotum. But after shouting or over-eating, or if the patient has been strained by a weight of any sort, it increases; under all kinds of cold it shrinks, under heat it enlarges; then the scrotum becomes globular and smooth to the touch; and within the scrotum the intestine slips about, when pressed upon it reverts towards the groin, when released it rolls down again with a sort of murmur. That is what happens in slight cases; but at times, when faeces have been taken in, it swells more largely, it cannot be forced back, and it then brings on pain both in the scrotum and in groins and abdomen. At times the stomach also becomes affected, and there is an issue from the mouth, first of red, then of green, and even in some of black bile. At times too, whilst the membranes remain entire, fluid distends the scrotum. There are two forms of this affection: for the fluid collects either between the coverings or in the membranes surrounding the veins and arteries, and then these membranes become thickened and weighted down. And even if the fluid lies between the membranes it is not confined to one place; it may lie between the superficial and middle membrane, or between the middle and inner membranes. The Greeks have one general name, they call it hydrocele, whichever kind it is; our people, not knowing enough perchance to make distinctions, call it by the same name as the preceding disorder. Now there are signs, some common to all cases, some particular: the common one is the existence of the fluid; the particular, the situation of it. We learn that there is fluid underneath, if the swelling never disappears entirely although it is at times less, whether from fasting or feverishness, and especially in boys; the tumour is soft when the fluid contained is only small in amount; but if it increases to a great extent, the tumour becomes tense like a wineskin which has been filled and tightly tied. Also veins in the wall of the scrotum are distended; and upon pressure with the finger the fluid recedes, and as it flows round raises up the part where there is no pressure and is seen through the scrotal wall as if it were contained in a glass or horn vessel; and however much is there is no pain. But the situation of the fluid is recognized as follows: if it is between the scrotal wall and the middle membrane, when we press with two fingers, the humour gradually comes up, returning as the fingers are withdrawn; the scrotal wall is whiter than natural; if it is drawn upon, it stretches either not at all, or very little; the testicle on that side cannot be seen or felt. But if it is under the middle membrane, the scrotum is stretched and more raised up, so that the root of the penis is concealed under the swelling. Besides the above a varicose affection which the Greeks call cirsocele occurs, in which also the membranes are intact. The veins become swollen, and when twisted, and massed together at the upper part, they distend the scrotum generally, or the middle or the inner covering; sometimes they grow even beneath the inner covering around the actual testicle and its cord. Of these the veins in the scrotal wall can be seen; but those situated in the middle or inner coverings, being more deeply placed, are not indeed equally visible but even these can be seen, especially because there is a certain amount of swelling in proportion to the size and form of the veins, and this is more resistant to pressure, and also is rendered irregular owing to the bulgings of the veins, whilst the testicle on that side hangs lower down than it ought. But when the disease has spread also over the testicle and its cord, the testicle sinks a little lower, and becomes smaller than its fellow, in as much as its nutrition has become defective. Sometimes, though rarely, flesh also grows between the tunics; the Greeks call this sarcocele. At times also the testicle itself swells owing to inflammation and this causes fever as well. And unless this inflammation quickly subsides, pain spreads to the inguinal and iliac regions, and these parts swell; the cord from which the testicle hangs becomes fuller, and at the same time it hardens. Besides this it happens sometimes that the groin is occupied by a rupture; they call it bubonocele.